تصفية الاستعمار

(تم التحويل من Decolonization)
كرتون تركي يصوّر الولايات المتحدة والاتحاد السوڤيتي والمملكة المتحدة يحملون جسراً، فوق برك من الدم تتربص فيها ثعابين النازية، وتمر عليه شعوب العالم الثالث إلى المستقبل. والفيل يمسك بخرطومة وثيقة مكتوب عليها "استقلال". بريشة جمال نادر، يونيو 1945.[1]

تصفية الاستعمار Decolonization هو تفكيك الاستعمار، العملية التي من خلالها تؤسس دولة ما سيطرتها وتحافظ عليها على أقاليم ما وراء البحار. ينطبق المفهوم بشكل خاص على تفكيك الامبراطوريات الاستعمارية، خلال النصف الثاني من القرن العشرين، التي تأسست قبل الحرب العالمية الأولى في جميع أنحاء العالم.[2] يركز العلماء بشكل خاص على الحركات المطالبة بالاستقلال في المستعمرات، مثل قومية الكريول.[3]

زعزعت الحرب العالمية الثانية ركائز الدول الاستعماريّة. ومع أن بريطانية، خرجت ظافرة من الحرب، فإن قواها تبددّت وأصبحت غير قادرة على إحكام سيطرتها على امبراطوريتها الواسعة. وعلى هذا المنوال أيضاً تضاءلت قدرة فرنسا وبلجيكا وهولندا.

بيد أنّ العامل الأكبر الذي عجّل بتصفية الاستعمار العسكري هو نموّ الشعور القوميّ لدى الشعوب المستعمَرة، ونمو نشاط حركات التحرير فيها ومطالبتها بتطبيق مبادئ المساواة والديمقراطيّة وحقّ الشعوب في تقرير مصيرها، وهي المبادئ التي نادى بها الحلفاء أنفسهم في حربهم مع دول المحور، وأيدّها ميثاق الأمم المتحدة ركائز لمجتمع دولي جديد يقوم على المساواة واحترام حقوق الإنسان، ومنع الحرب وسيلةً للتعامل الدولي، مع الاعتراف بحق الدفاع المشروع.

ويكفي لإدراك مدى اليقظة التي اجتاحت المستعمرات التي أصبحت قرارات الأمم المتحدة تطلق عليها اسم «الأراضي التي لا تحكم نفسها بنفسها» مقارنة بين المجمع الإفريقي الرابع الذي عقد بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى والمجمع الخامس الذي عقد بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية سنة 1945، وكان المجمع يضم نخبة الإفريقيين والمتحدرين من أصل إفريقي: ففي حين كان الأوّل يطالب بتمثيل أوسع للعرق الإفريقي في حكومات المستعمرات، وإلغاء العبودية والعمل الإجباري، وإصلاح أحوال المعيشة في المستعمرات، اتخذ المجمع الثاني المنعقد في مانشستر يتخذ قرارات إجماعية يطالب فيها بإلغاء كل أشكال الامبريالية الاقتصادية والسياسية، ويدعو إلى تحقيق استقلال إفريقية، ولو باستعمال القوة، إذا لم تُجدِ الوسائل السلمية نفعاً لبلوغ هذا الاستقلال.

وبالفعل فقد تطوّر الاجتهاد في القانون الدولي على يد الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة إلى حدّ وصف الاستعمار جريمةً تقترف بحق الإنسانية وعدّ النضال من أجل التحرير عملاً مشروعاً ولو لجأ إلى استخدام القوّة.

وإلى جانب هذا التطوّر في المبادئ أقامت المنظمة الدولية جهازاً لمراقبة تصفية الاستعمار والإسراع في إنهائه ووضعت في قرار الجمعية العامة ذي الرقم 1514 لسنة 1960 تفاصيل عن مسيرة نقل السلطة في البلاد غير المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي إلى ممثلي البلاد الشرعيين.

ونظّمت أساليب الإشراف على إجراءات الاستفتاء والانتخاب وانتقال السلطات والمراحل الانتقالية. وقد تدخلت المنظمة الدولية فعلياً في أزمات كثيرة منها أزمة الكونغو وروديسية في حين كان أثرها في بقية الأحوال ينحصر في تجنيد الرأي العام الدولي للضغط على الدول التي كلفت إدارة تلك البلاد، وهي التسمية التي أطلقتها قرارات الأمم المتحدة على الدول المستعمرة للإشارة إلى أنّ إدارتها لتلك البلاد وقتيّة وغايتها تسهيل بلوغ البلاد التي تديرها الحرية والاستقلال فلا تحاول التملّص من مسؤولية إنهاء سيطرتها بأسرع وقت ممكن.

وقد تفاوتت عمليّات تصفية الاستعمار في الأصقاع المختلفة بين عمليّات تمّت بوسائل سلميّة نسبياً بصرف النظر عمّا خلفته من مشاكل داخلية وإقليميّة، وبين عمليّات رافقها العنف، أو لم تنفّذ إلا بانتهاء حرب سببّها الخلاف على السلطة الوريثة للأراضي المحرّرة.

وقد حصلت الهند وباكستان وبرمانيا على استقلالها سنة 1947، وإندونيسيا سنة 1949، وليبية سنة 1951، والسودان سنة 1956، وغانة سنة 1957، وماليزية سنة 1958، ونيجيرية سنة 1960. وكذلك تحررت الأراضي التي كانت خاضعة للحكم الفرنسي في إفريقية جنوبي الصحراء كغينية سنة 1958، وبقية الدول الإفريقية السوداء ومدغشقر سنة 1960، وجزر الكومور سنة 1975، وجيبوتي سنة 1977. لكن الاستعمار لم ينته في الكونغو وروديسية وبلاد الهند الصينية الفرنسية إلا بعد أزمات داخلية ودوليّة كان أهمها تلك التي قادت إلى تصدّي شعب فييتنام على التوالي لكل من فرنسة التي هزمت في معركة «بيان فو» والولايات المتحدة التي اضطرّت إلى مغادرة فييتنام بعد حرب ضروس. وفي بعض الحالات كان وجود أقلية استوطنت في المستعمرات وأبقت على ولائها للبلد المستعمر الأم عاملاً من عوامل النزاع وبذر الحرب الأهلية.

وقد كانت قضية الجزائر المثال «التقليدي» والدرامي لهذه الفئة، فكان وضعها يختلف عن وضع كل من المغرب وتونس اللتين كان يطبّق عليهما نظام الحماية، وقد بلغ المغرب استقلاله الكامل سنة 1956، وبلغت تونس صيغة من الاستقلال أقرّت مع ذلك بمبدأ تداخل العلاقات مع فرنسة إلى أن عقدت سلسلة من الاتفاقات بين فرنسة وتونس في المجالات الدبلوماسية والعسكرية والمالية بين سنتي 1956 و1958 فأفرغت هذا المفهوم الغامض من التداخل من أي محتوى جوهري. وكان اختلاف وضع الجزائر عن وضع جارتيها أن فرنسة عاملتها على أنها أرض مستعمرة ثم ألحقتها بالأراضي الفرنسية وعدّت جميع سكانها من رعاياها من دون أن تمنح الأكثرية الساحقة من المواطنين الجزائريين الحقوق السياسية والاقتصادية التي كان من المفروض أن تنشئها هذه الرعوية. بل أمعن الحكام العامون المتعاقبون على الجزائر في التمييز في المعاملة بين الأقليّة المستوطنة والأكثرية السّاحقة العربية المسلمة التي كانت تتزايد نسبتها سنة بعد سنة بازدياد المواليد، من دون أن تتحسّن أحوالها الاجتماعية والمعاشيّة. وحين اندلعت الاضطرابات في أوّل تشرين الثاني سنة 1954 كانت البلاد ناضجة لإعلان الثورة العارمة، وتولّت قيادتها حركة التحرير الوطنيّة ودامت على أشدّها ثماني سنوات، من دون أن تجدي نفعاً العمليّات الحربية الفرنسية التي بلغت حدّ الحرب المستمرة الشاملة، ولا وعود الحكومات الفرنسية المتعاقبة بإجراء إصلاحات في النظام. وكانت هذه الوعود تنطلق من المحافظة على الجزائر مقاطعة فرنسية، وهو ما كان يتناقض في الجذور مع التطوّر التاريخي الذي آذن بإنهاء الاستعمار إنهاء كليّاً شاملاً. وغدا من الواضح عقم التغلّب على الثورة بالقوّة، ولاسيّما أنها كانت تحظى بالتأييد المتزايد من سائر البلاد العربية، والدول الاشتراكيّة، وتلقى التأييد المعنوي الكبير من حركة عدم الانحياز التي ضمت تقريباً كلّ الدول التي تحرّرت من الاستعمار، فأصبحت تؤلف ثقلاً دولياً راجحاً في الرأي العام الدولي وفي محافل الأمم المتحدة. فضلاً عن أنّ القضية الجزائرية قسمت الرأي العام في فرنسة نفسها وهددت بنشوب أزمات داخلية. وانتهى الأمر على يد الجنرال ديغول الذي تولى مقاليد الحكم سنة 1958، فاعترف بالهوية الجزائرية وعقدت مفاوضات في إفيان بين فرنسة وجبهة التحرير الجزائرية انتهت في آخر اجتماع لها في 7 آذار 1962 إلى استفتاء الجزائريين في تمّوز من السنة نفسها فاختاروا بأكثرية 91.8 بالمئة الاستقلال، مع تخيير المستوطنين بين الجنسية الجزائرية أو القبول بوضع الأجانب في الجزائر. وقد بلغت الجزائر كامل استقلالها سنة 1962 بعد أن سقط في ساحات المعارك أكثر من مليون شهيد وأطلق على الثورة بحق اسم «ثورة مليون شهيد».

أصبحت قضية الجزائر مثالاً يحتذى للشعوب المحرومة من حقوقها تحت نير الاستعمار الاستيطاني الذي لم تزل آثاره من عالم ما بعد الحرب تماماً، وتمثل بمحنة الأفارقة، وهم الأكثرية الساحقة من سكّان جنوب إفريقية، المحرومين من حقوقهم السياسية التي أنكرها عليهم نظام التمييز العنصري. فقد كان استقلال جنوب إفريقية عن بريطانية استقلالاً للمستوطنين فقط، مع استعمار سواد الشعب الإفريقي، ولم تفلح قرارات الأمم المتحدة وحركات المناهضة الوطنية والدولية بتحريره. إضافة إلى أن النظام العنصري ظل حتى مطلع التسعينات من القرن العشرين يحتفظ باستعماره لجنوب غربي أفريقية (ناميبيا) على الرغم من إعلان الأمم المتحدة في 1970 ومحكمة العدل الدولية في 1971 عدم شرعية الإبقاء على هذا الإقليم محروماً من حقه في تقرير المصير وضرورة انسحاب المستعمر منه.

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تصفية الاستعمار في أفريقيا

المقالة الرئيسية: تصفية الاستعمار في أفريقيا
تصفية الاستعمار البريطاني في أفريقيا

وقد تطوّر نضال الأكثرية الإفريقية من أجل التحرر والاستقلال تحت قيادة «منظمة شعب جنوب غربي إفريقية» كما بدأت حكومة جنوب إفريقيا بتطوير مواقفها والتسليم بإمكان الاستقلال، بضغط من الأمم المتحدة ووساطة من الولايات المتحدة. وبدأت المفاوضات لنقل السلطة وقبلت جنوب إفريقيا أخيراً انضمام منظمة تحرير ناميبية إليها. وبعد أن اتفقت الدول التي كانت تتعارض مصالحها في المنطقة جنوب إفريقية وكوبة وأنغولة على سحب قواتها والدعوة إلى انتخابات عامة في تشرين الثاني 1989، فازت منظمة تحرير ناميبيا بـ57 % من الأصوات كما انتخب زعمي المنظمة «سام نوجوما» رئيساً للجمهورية الجديدة، وتمّ استقلال هذا الإقليم في 21آذار سنة 1990 وسميّت الدولة الجديدة «ناميبيا» وقبلت عضواً في الأمم المتحدة في 23 أبريل من السنة ذاتها ثم عضواً في منظمة الوحدة الإفريقية.


اليابان

U.S. troops in Korea, September 1945


الاستعمار الاستيطاني الجديد: فلسطين

كذلك فإنّ من بين مظاهر الاستعمار الاستيطاني الجديد حرمان الشعب العربي الفلسطيني حقوقه الوطنية واستقلاله بعد تشريد عدد كبير من أبنائه، واحتلال أراضيه من قبل الكيان الصهيوني الذي تدعمه عسكرياً ومادياً ومعنوياً القوى الامبريالية الجديدة وتقف سداً منيعاً دون ممارسة هذا الشعب لحقه في تقرير المصير، طبقاً لقرارات الأمم المتحدة.

وقد تميزت سنوات السبعينات والثمانينات من القرن العشرين بتحرّر بقيّة المستعمرات وتصفية نظم الحماية، وانتظام محميات الخليج العربي في دول مستقلة: عُمان، والإمارات العربية المتحدة، وقطر، والبحرين، والكويت، بعدما أفلحت محمية عدن بإزاحة نير السيطرة البريطانية عنها وأصبحت في دولة اليمن المستقلة.

وشهدت هذه السنوات انهيار الاستعمار الاستيطاني البرتغالي في كل من غينية بيسّاو، وموزامبيق وأنغولا التي بلغت استقلالها الكامل، وتمّ جلاء الاحتلال الأجنبي عن الجزر المنتثرة في المحيطين الهندي والهادئ وبحر الكاريبي.

لكنّ وسائل السيطرة بأساليب غير أساليب القوّة والاستعمار لم تختف من العلاقات الدولية؛ ويعني اصطلاح «الاستعمار الجديد» ما ينشأ في دول مستقلة من نفوذ أجنبي، سياسي واقتصادي وثقافي، يؤثّر تأثيراً واضحاً في سيادة هذه الدول وحريتها في اختيار شكل حكمها، وفي تعزيز اقتصادها القومي، واتجاهات سياستها الخارجية، ومن هذا القبيل اتساع النفوذ السياسي والاقتصادي لعدد من الدول الغربية وانتشار القواعد العسكرية لبعضها في أرجاء المعمورة واتخاذ تدابير مسلّحة تقارب مفهومات الغزو والاحتلال في عدد من الحالات. كما أن الشركات الكبرى المتعددة الجنسيّات أصبحت قادرة على التحكم بجزء لا يستهان به من اقتصاد عدد من الدول المستقلّة.

لقد تعدّدت أساليب هذه السيّطرة، وافتنّت دول الاستعمار الجديد في إيجاد المسوّغات لها، وأصبحت تستحق النظر ظاهرةً من الصحيح القول إنها ابتدأت بفكرة «الامبراطوريّات غير الرسميّة» التي ظهرت في أوائل القرن العشرين ولكنّ تطورّها قد يجعل منها إحدى السمات البارزة في هذا القرن ـ الموصوف عادة بالنزعة العارمة للتخلّص من الاستعمار القديم والحديث.[4].

الوقع على المستعمرات السابقة

للمزيد من المعلومات: ديون العالم الثالث

منظمات ما بعد الاستعمار

المنظمات الدولية الأربعة التي تتبع عضويتها بشكل كبير نمط الامبراطوريات الاستعمارية السابقة.

بسبب التاريخ والثقافة المشتركة، أنشأت القوى الاستعمارية السابقة مؤسسات ربطت بشكل فضفاض مستعمراتها السابقة. العضوية طوعية، وفي بعض الحالات يمكن إلغاؤها إذا فقدت الدولة العضو بعض المعايير الموضوعية (عادة ما تكون مطلباً للحكم الديمقراطي). تخدم المنظمات أغراضاً ثقافية واقتصادية وسياسية بين الدول الأعضاء، على الرغم أنه لا يوجد بينها من أصبحت منظمة بارزة سياسياً ككيان في حد ذاته.

القوة الاستعمارية السابقة المنظمة تأسست
المملكة المتحدة كومنولث الأمم 1931
فرنسا الاتحاد الفرنسي 1946
التجمع الفرنسي 1958
الفرانكفونية 1970
إسپانيا والپرتغال الاتحاد اللاتيني 1954
منظمة الدول الإبرو-أمريكية 1991
الپرتغال تجمع بلدان اللغة الپرتغالية 1996
روسيا كومنولث الدول المستقلة 1991
الولايات المتحدة الكومونلث 1934
Freely Associated States 1982
هولندا De Nederlandse Unie 1949
De Nederlandse Taalunie 1980

اغتال القادة المناهضون للاستعمار

Gandhi in 1947, with Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain's last Viceroy of India, and his wife Vicereine Edwina Mountbatten.

وستتضمن قائمة القادة المقتولين "غير الشاملة":


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Timeline of independence

للمزيد من المعلومات: List of national independence days

This list includes formerly non-self-governing territories, such as colonies, protectorates, condominia, and leased territories. Changes in status of autonomy leading up to and after independence are not listed, and some dates of independence may be disputed. For details, see each national history.

18th century to World War I

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1776 Great Britain الولايات المتحدة Thirteen colonies of British America declare their independence a year into a general insurrection. Recognized by Great Britain in 1783 at the Treaty of Paris.
1804 France Haiti After initially revolting only to restore French control, Saint-Domingue declares its independence as Haiti. Recognized by France in 1825 in exchange for a ₣150 million indemnity, financed through French banks.
1810 Spain West Florida (today part of the الولايات المتحدة) West Florida declares independence, but is almost immediately annexed by the United States as part of Orleans Territory under its claims from the Louisiana Purchase. Annexation recognized by Spain in 1819.
1811 Spain Paraguay Paraguay achieves independence. Recognised by Spain in 1880.
Venezuela Venezuela declares its independence. During its revolution, it joins Gran Colombia, before seceding to achieve independence in 1830.
Gran Colombia (today Colombia and Panama) Cartagena declares its independence. Cundinamarca and the United Provinces of New Granada followed suit in 1813. Briefly retaken by Spain, saved by Simon Bolivar and united as Colombia in 1821. Panama seceded 1903.
1815 Spain Uruguay The Federal League declares its independence of the restored Spanish crown, after having successfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in 1811. Attacked by Portugal, some provinces united with the future Argentina; others, after a protracted struggle, successfully formed Uruguay in 1828. Recognized by Spain in 1870.
1816 Spain Argentina The United Provinces of South America formally declare their independence of the restored Spanish crown, after having successfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in its name in 1810. Became Argentina in 1826. Recognized by Spain in 1859.[6]
1818 Spain Chile Chile declares its independence of the restored crown, after having unsuccessfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in its name in 1810. Recognized by the Spanish in 1844.
1819 Spain East Florida (today part of the الولايات المتحدة) The Adams-Onís Treaty cedes Florida to the United States in exchange for US cession of its claims to Texas under the Louisiana Purchase and in exchange for settling $5 million of its residents' claims against Spain.
1821 Spain Mexico Following a failed liberal insurrection in New Spain, the colony declares its independence as the Mexican Empire after a liberal mutiny succeeds in Spain. Recognised by Spain in 1836. Texas independent in 1836, annexed to the United States in 1845. Upper California and New Mexico lost to the United States in 1848.
Central America (today Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, and part of Mexico) Chiapas and then all of Guatemala declares its independence as part of the Mexican Empire. Independent from Mexico in 1823 as the Federal Republic of Central America. Divided into Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala in 1838; remnant renamed El Salvador in 1841.
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo declares independence as Spanish Haiti, requests union with Gran Colombia, and is swiftly annexed by Haiti. It will achieve independence in 1844 only to restore Spanish rule in 1861.
Peru A Chilean expeditionary force declares the independence of Peru. Bolivia formed from Upper Peru in 1825. Recognized by Spain in 1879.
Ottoman Empire Greece Greece revolts. Recognized by the Porte in 1832 in the Treaty of Constantinople.
1822 Spain Ecuador Quito declares independence as a part of Gran Colombia. Independent from Colombia as Ecuador in 1830. Recognized by Spain in 1840.
Portugal Brazil Brazil, long the seat of the Portuguese royal government, declares independence under a rogue prince after the king returns to Lisbon. Recognized by Portugal in 1825.
1847 الولايات المتحدة Liberia Liberia declares its independence as an organised nation. Independence was officially recognized by the United States in 1862
1852 Ottoman Empire Montenegro Montenegro declares its independence. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin. Voluntarily united with Serbia as Yugoslavia in 1918.
1864 United Kingdom Ionian Islands (today part of Greece) The United States of the Ionian Islands, a majority Greek protectorate, peaceably united with modern Greece by the Treaty of London.
1865 Spain Dominican Republic Santo Domingo regains independence as the Dominican Republic after four years as a restored colony.
1867 United Kingdom Canada Britain grants internal autonomy to Canada, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over Canada until 1931, and a role in Canada constitutional law until 1982.
1869 Ottoman Empire Serbia Serbia declares its full independence from the Ottoman Empire. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin.
1877 Ottoman Empire Romania The United Principalities of Romania declare their independence. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin.
1898 Spain Cuba, Philippines The United States (barred from annexing Cuba itself by the Teller Amendment) forces Spain to abjure its own claims to the island in the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War. Various other Spanish colonies are purchased for $20 million, including the Philippines, causing an immediate backlash among the Philippine revolutionaries who have been fighting for independence since 1896. The Philippine Republic would fall to the United States in 1901 following the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo. In 1935, the Insular Government over the Philippines was replaced with the Commonwealth.
1900 United Kingdom Australia Britain grants internal autonomy to Australia, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over Australia until 1942, and shared a role in Australia constitutional law until 1986.
1902 الولايات المتحدة Cuba Cuba granted independence. Guantanamo Bay is leased in perpetuity as a US Naval base.
1908 Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Bulgaria, largely autonomous since the Congress of Berlin, declares itself fully independent of the Ottoman Empire.
1910 United Kingdom South Africa Britain grants internal autonomy to South Africa, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over South Africa until 1931, and shared a head of state until 1961.
1912 Ottoman Empire Albania Albania declares independence. Recognized in the 1913 Treaty of London.


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Interwar period

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1916 Russia Poland The independence of Russian Poland as a new kingdom is proclaimed by occupying German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Recognized by Soviet Russia in the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Absorbed Polish regions from Germany, Austria, and Hungary following World War I and from Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine after the Polish-Soviet War.
1917 Russia Finland Finland declares its independence. Recognized in the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, although Karelia remained disputed.
Crimea (since 1954 de jure part of Ukraine, since 2014 de facto part of Russia) Crimean People's Republic declares independence but Crimean Tatar forces hold out less than a month against the Bolsheviks.
Idel-Ural (today part of Russia) Volga Tatars declare independence of the Idel-Ural State; other ethnic groups including Volga Germans and Bashkirs join them. The republic was crushed by the Bolsheviks a few months later.
Kazakhstan Kazakhs declare independence of the Alash Autonomy. This lasted for less than three years before being defeated by the Bolsheviks.
1918 Russia Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the Republic of Georgia and the Republic of Armenia declare independence on May 26–28. All three would be conquered by the Red Army in 1920–1921.
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declare independence. All three were initially able to secure their independence by 1920; however, on 1940, all three were invaded by the Soviet Union and were later annexed.
Ukraine The Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) declared independence in January 1918, and was recognized by several states from February, including by Bolshevik Russia in the March Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It would lose its international recognition after the Paris Peace Conference, and its territory to the Russian-created Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was formally subordinated to Moscow by the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
Austria-Hungary Czechoslovakia (today the Czech Republic and Slovakia) Bohemia, Moravia, and sections of Silesia, Galicia, and Hungary declare their independence as Czechoslovakia. Recognized in the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. Slovakia independent from 1939 to 1945. Carpathian Ruthenia independent in 1939, eventually annexed to Ukraine. Secession of Slovakia in 1993.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (today Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina) Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia declare their independence as the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and swiftly unites with Serbia as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes which later became Yugoslavia.
Ukraine The West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) declared independence November 1, 1918, and symbolically united with the Ukrainian People's Republic on January 22, 1919. It allied with Poland in the 1920 Treaty of Warsaw, but was absorbed after the 1921 Peace of Riga.
Denmark Iceland After the signing of the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, Iceland becomes a sovereign state in personal union with Denmark.
1919 United Kingdom Afghanistan End of the protectorate over Afghanistan, when the United Kingdom accepts the presence of a Soviet ambassador in Kabul.
1920 Ottoman Empire Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine (today Israel and Palestine) The San Remo conference establishes League of Nations mandates from Ottoman Mesopotamia and Syria. The 1920 Iraqi revolt prevents the mandate over Mesopotamia from being enacted, and was replaced with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty in 1922. In 1926, Greater Lebanon became the Lebanese Republic.
1921 China Mongolia Communist Mongolian revolutionaries, with the help of the Red Army, expel the Chinese government presence from Outer Mongolia. Mongolia was recognized by the United Nations in 1961.
1922 United Kingdom Ireland Following insurgency by the Irish Republican Army, most of Ireland separates from the United Kingdom as the Irish Free State, remaining as a dominion. Northern Ireland, the north-east area of the island, remains within the United Kingdom.
Egypt Egypt is unilaterally granted independence by the United Kingdom. However, four matters (imperial communications, defence, the protection of foreign interests and minorities, as well as Sudan) remain "absolutely reserved to the discretion" of the British government, which greatly restricts the full exercise of Egyptian sovereignty.
1926 United Kingdom Canada, Ireland, South Africa The Balfour Declaration declares the dominions of the British empire as autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status.
1930 United Kingdom Weihai (today part of China) The United Kingdom returns the leased port territory at Weihaiwei to China.
1931 United Kingdom Canada, Ireland, South Africa The Statute of Westminster grants virtually full independence to Canada, the Irish Free State, and the Union of South Africa when it declares the British parliament incapable of passing law over these former colonies without their own consent. This doesn't take effect over New Zealand, Newfoundland, and the Commonwealth of Australia, until independently ratified by these dominions.
1932 United Kingdom Iraq End of League of Nations Mandate over Iraq. The United Kingdom continues to station troops in the country and influence the Iraqi government until 1958.
1940 France Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia[7] After the Fall of France, the new French State de facto cedes control of French Indochina to Japan, weakening the colonial system that would make it difficult for France to control their colony once it is returned to them.
1941 Italy Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia[8] Eritrea, Tigray Province (appended to it), Italian Somaliland, and Ethiopia are taken by the Allies after an uneasy occupation of Ethiopia since 1935–36, and no longer joined as one colonial federal state. Ethiopia, the only African state to escape the Scramble for Africa, returns to being a sovereign nation, while the Ogaden desert (disputed by Somalia) remains under British military control until 1948.
1942 United Kingdom Australia Australia ratifies the Statute of Westminster.
Netherlands[9] Indonesia[10] Japanese seize control of the Dutch East Indies. Throughout the occupation the Japanese dismantle the colonial system and stirs national fervour among the native population, which will cause major problems for the Dutch when the colony is returned to them.
1943 France Lebanon Lebanon declares independence, effectively ending the French mandate (previously together with Syria).
1944 Denmark[11] Iceland Following a plebiscite, Iceland formally becomes a republic, ending the personal union between Denmark and Iceland.
1945 Japan Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia[7] In the last months of World War II, Japanese forces in French Indochina overthrew the largely powerless colonial administration and declare the independence of the Vietnam (which was formed from three separate colonies) Cambodia, and Laos. After the surrender of Japan, all three states would be disestablished and, in theory, returned to French colonial rule.
Korea (today North Korea and South Korea) After the surrender of Japan, Korea is occupied by the Soviet Union and the United States.
Taiwan (today de jure part of China, de facto an independent state with limited recognition), Mengjiang (today part of China), Manchuria (today part of China)[12] After the surrender of Japan, Mengjiang and Manchukuo are returned to China. Taiwan is put under the post-war occupation of China in accordance with the arrangement in General Order No. 1; this would prove to very useful for Nationalist-led China, as within four years, Taiwan would serve as a refuge for Chiang Kai-shek and his forces following the Communist takeover of China.
Indonesia[10] After the surrender of Japan, the Dutch East Indies is returned to the Netherlands.
Netherlands Indonesia However, just two days later, the Dutch East Indies declares independence, which after four years of armed struggle and mounting international pressure is recognised by the Netherlands in 1949.
France Vietnam Before France is able to regain control over French Indochina, Vietnam declares independence. France will recognize Vietnam in 1954 following a humiliating defeat, although between that year and 1975 Vietnam was divided into a communist north and a largely anti-communist south under American influence, before reuniting under North Vietnam rule.

Cold War

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1946 الولايات المتحدة Philippines The treaty of Manila is signed, effectively ending over 380 years of foreign domination in the Philippines. United States military bases continued to be stationed in the islands.
United Kingdom Jordan The former Emirate of Transjordan became an independent Hashemite kingdom when the United Kingdom relinquishes its League of Nations mandate.
France Syria The former Mandate of Syria became an independent Republic.
1947 United Kingdom New Zealand New Zealand ratifies the Statute of Westminster 1931.
United Kingdom India, Pakistan (today Pakistan and Bangladesh) The British government leaves India, which is partitioned into the secular, but Hindu-majority state of India and the Muslim state of Pakistan (the eastern half of which will later became independent as Bangladesh in 1971).
1948 United Kingdom Myanmar, Sri Lanka Burma, which had separated from British India earlier and did not gain independence in 1947, and Ceylon, which despite being a part of the Indian subcontinent was only briefly a part of British India, became independent.
Israel, Palestine The Jewish-controlled part of Palestine declares independence as the state of Israel; the remainder of Palestine became de facto part of the Arab states of Egypt (Gaza strip) and Transjordan (West Bank).
الولايات المتحدة South Korea The Republic of Korea is established in the southern part of the Korean peninsula.
Soviet Union North Korea The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is established in the northern part of the peninsula.
1949 United Kingdom Newfoundland (today part of Canada) The Dominion of Newfoundland joins Canada.
1951 United Kingdom Eritrea The Mandate of Eritrea is given by the British to Ethiopia.
France, United Kingdom Libya The British-controlled Tripolitania and the French-controlled Fezzan unifies with the Emirate of Cyrenaica to form the Kingdom of Libya.
1953 France Cambodia, Laos The two non-Vietnamese protectorates of French Indochina, Cambodia and Laos, became independent.
1954 France Pondicherry (today part of India) The Puducherry enclave is incorporated into India.
United Kingdom Suez Canal (today part of Egypt) In the aftermath of July 23 revolution, the United Kingdom withdraws from the last part of Egypt it controls: the Suez Canal zone.
1956 United Kingdom, Egypt (de jure, de facto just United Kingdom) Sudan (today Sudan and South Sudan) Egypt ends it claims of sovereignty over Sudan, forcing the United Kingdom to do the same. The southern non-Arab half will later became an independent state in 2011.
France Tunisia Tunisia achieve independence.
France, Spain Morocco After large-scale protests forces France to return the sultan of Morocco, the French-controlled territories, most of the Spanish-controlled territories (except Cape Juby and Ifni) and the Tangier International Zone are united into an independent kingdom.
1957 United Kingdom Ghana The Gold Coast became independent, initiating the decolonization of sub-Saharan Africa.
Malaysia The Federation of Malaya became independent.
1958 France Guinea After being the only colony to vote against the 1958 French constitution, Guinea is granted independence.
1960 United Kingdom Cyprus (today de facto Cyprus and Northern Cyprus) Most of Cyprus became independent, though the UK retains sovereign control over Akrotiri and Dhekelia. In 1983, the northern Turkish half of Cyprus declared its independence (this state is only recognized by Turkey).
Nigeria Nigeria became independent.
Italy, United Kingdom Somalia (today de facto Somalia and Somaliland) British Somaliland became independent. As the State of Somaliland, the former British Somaliland protectorate merges as scheduled five days later with the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic. (In the aftermath of the Somali Civil War, the former British Somaliland split from Somalia and has been an internationally unrecognized independent state called Somaliland since 1991.)
France Ivory Coast, Benin, Mauritania, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali Federation (today Mali and Senegal) All remaining colony members of French West Africa became independent, including Côte d'Ivoire, Dahomey, Mauritania, Niger, Upper Volta, French Sudan, and Senegal (the last two originally as a single-entity called the Mali Federation; within the same year the two split off into Mali and Senegal).
Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Gabon All colony members of French Equatorial Africa became independent, including Chad, Ubangi-Shari, the French Congo, and Gabon.
Cameroon, Togo The United Nations trust territories of Cameroun and French Togoland became independent.
Madagascar Madagascar became independent.
Belgium Democratic Republic of the Congo The Belgian Congo (also known as Congo-Kinshasa, later renamed Zaire and presently the Democratic Republic of the Congo) became independent.
1961 United Kingdom Tanzania The United Nations trust territory of Tanganyika became independent.
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone became independent.
Kuwait The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over the Sheikhdom of Kuwait.
British Cameroons (today part of Nigeria and part of Cameroon) After a referendum, United Nations trust territory of Cameroons is dissolved, with the northern Muslim half deciding to merge with Nigeria and the southern Christian half deciding to merge with Cameroon.
South Africa The Union of South Africa declares itself a republic.
Portugal Goa, Daman and Diu (today part of India) The former coastal enclave colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu are taken over by India.
1962 United Kingdom Uganda Uganda achieves independence.
Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago With the collapse of the West Indies Federation, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent as separate entities.
France Algeria Following the end of the Algerian War and the signing of the Évian Accords, both French and Algerian voters approve the independence of Algeria.
Belgium Rwanda, Burundi Following a period of ethnic violence in Rwanda that led to abolition of its monarchy, Belgium ends its trusteeship over it and Burundi.
New Zealand Samoa The South Sea UN trusteeship over Western Samoa (formerly German Samoa and nowadays called just Samoa) is relinquished.
1963 United Kingdom Kenya, Zanzibar (today part of Tanzania) The United Kingdom and the Sultanate of Zanzibar ceded its sovereignty over Kenya. Zanzibar, itself a British Protectorate, would also have its protectorate terminated in the same year. After the Zanzibar Revolution that occurred a year later, Zanzibar merged with Tanganyika, which promptly renamed itself the United Republic of Tanzania.
Sarawak (today part of Malaysia), North Borneo (today part of Malaysia), Singapore Sarawak, North Borneo and Singapore merges with the independent Federation of Malaya, which promptly renamed itself Malaysia. Within two years, however, Singapore would be expelled from Malaysia.
United Nations Western New Guinea (today part of Indonesia) Less than a year after Netherlands transferred Netherlands New Guinea to the United Nations, the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority transfers West Papua to Indonesia.
1964 United Kingdom Zambia, Malawi Following the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland declare independence.
Malta The Mediterranean island of Malta became independent.
1965 United Kingdom Zimbabwe Southern Rhodesia declares independence as Rhodesia, but is not recognized due to its unwillingness to accommodate to black-majority rule.
The Gambia The Gambia receives independence.
Maldives The British protectorate over the Maldives archipelago in the Indian Ocean ends.
1966 United Kingdom Barbados, Guyana In the British West Indies, Barbados (which was a former member of the West Indies Federation) and British Guiana became independent.
Botswana, Lesotho Near South Africa, Bechuanaland and Basutoland became independent.
1967 United Kingdom South Yemen (today part of Yemen) On the Arabian peninsula, the Protectorate of South Arabia and the Federation of South Arabia became independent as a single entity called the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (or South Yemen). In 1990, South Yemen merged with the Yemen Arab Republic (or North Yemen), which promptly renamed itself as the Republic of Yemen.
1968 United Kingdom Mauritius Mauritius achieves independence.
Swaziland The Kingdom of Swaziland has its protectorate terminated.
Spain Equatorial Guinea Spanish Guinea achieves independence.
Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom (de jure, de facto just Australia) Nauru Australia relinquishes UN trusteeship (nominally shared by the United Kingdom and New Zealand) of Nauru in the South Sea.
1970 United Kingdom Oman The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over Muscat and Oman.
1971 United Kingdom Fiji, Tonga In Oceania, Fiji became independent, while the protectorate over the Kingdom of Tonga ends.
United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar All seven members of the Trucial States became independent upon the termination of their protectorates, with six (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain) forming the United Arab Emirates; the seventh, Ras al-Khaimah, would join the UAE a year after. Two other Arab monarchies in the Persian Gulf, Bahrain and Qatar (which despite discussions of joining the UAE were not considered part of the Trucial States) also became independent as their British protectorates are lifted.
1973 United Kingdom The Bahamas The Bahamas are granted independence.
Portugal Guinea-Bissau After more than a decade of fighting, guerrillas unilaterally declare independence in the Southeastern regions of Portuguese Guinea. It would not be recognized by Portugal until a year later, in the aftermath of Carnation Revolution.
1974 United Kingdom Grenada Grenada, a former member of the West Indies Federation became independent.
1975 France Comoros The Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa is granted independence.
Portugal Angola, Mozambique After the Carnation Revolution, the two other colonies who have been fighting against colonial rule, Angola and Mozambique achieve independence. East Timor declares independence, but is subsequently occupied and annexed by Indonesia nine days later.
Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe After the Carnation Revolution, the Western African island groups of Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe achieve independence.
East Timor After the Carnation Revolution, East Timor declares independence, but is subsequently invaded and occupied by Indonesia nine days later.
Netherlands Suriname Surinam (also known as Dutch Guiana) achieves independence.
Australia Papua New Guinea Released from Australian trusteeship, Papua New Guinea gains independence.
1976 United Kingdom Seychelles The Seychelles archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the African coast became independent (one year after granting of self-rule).
Spain Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic The Spanish colonial rule is de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Rio de Oro), when the territory was passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexes the entire territory in 1979), rendering the declared independence of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic ineffective to the present day.
1977 France Djibouti French Somaliland, also known as the "French Territory of the Afars and the Issas" (after its dominant ethnic groups), gains independence.
1978 United Kingdom Dominica Dominica, a former member of the West Indies Federation, became independent.
Solomon Islands, Tuvalu The Solomon Islands and the Ellice Islands (which previously split off from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands) became independent.
1979 الولايات المتحدة Panama Canal (today part of Panama) The United States promises to return the Panama Canal Zone (held under a regime sui generis since 1903) to the republic of Panama after 1999.
United Kingdom Kiribati The Gilbert Islands became independent.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Saint Lucia, both former members of the West Indies Federation, became independent.
1980 United Kingdom Zimbabwe In the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, Rhodesia, which temporary regained its colonial status, became formally independent under black-majority rule.
United Kingdom, France Vanuatu The joint Anglo-French colony of the New Hebrides became the independent island Republic of Vanuatu.
1981 United Kingdom Belize, Antigua and Barbuda In the British West Indies, British Honduras and Antigua and Barbuda (which was a former member of the West Indies Federation) became independent.
1982 United Kingdom Canada Canada gains full independence from the British parliament with the Canada Act 1982.
1983 United Kingdom Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis (an associated state since 1963) became independent.
1984 United Kingdom Brunei The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over the Brunei sultanate.
1986 United Kingdom Australia, New Zealand Australia and New Zealand became fully independent with the Australia Act 1986 and the Constitution Act 1986.
1990 South Africa Namibia South West Africa, the only League of Nation mandate that did not become a United Nation trust territory via independence, became independent from South Africa. South Africa would continue hold on to Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands until 1994.
Soviet Union Lithuania Declared the end of Soviet occupation and restoration of its 1918 independence on March 11.
الولايات المتحدة Marshall Islands, Micronesia The UN Security Council gives final approval to end the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific (dissolved already in 1986), finalizing the independence of the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia, having been a colonial possession of the empire of Japan before UN trusteeship.
1991 Soviet Union Estonia Adopted a resolution on March 30, that its independent status had never been suspended and only subject to an illegal occupation since 1940, and another on August 20 restoring an Estonian republic.
Latvia Restored pre-Soviet-occupation independence on May 4, and full independence on August 21.
Georgia Declared independence on April 9 after a referendum.
Belarus, Ukraine Following a coup attempt by Russian hardliners against the Soviet government, Ukraine declared independence on August 24, and its people ratified this in a referendum on December 1, gaining international recognition, including by the Russian Republic, the following day. Belarus declared independence August 25. With Russia, agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union when they signed the Belavezha Accords on December 8.
Moldova, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Russian Federation, Kazakhstan With Belarus and Ukraine, the remaining Soviet republics signed the Almaty Protocol on December 21, agreeing to dissolve the Soviet Union and create a Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 25, Soviet president Gorbachev resigned and the Soviet Union was effectively dissolved.

Post–Cold War era

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1993 Ethiopia Eritrea Eritrea, a former Italian colony declares independence and is subsequently recognized.
1994 الولايات المتحدة Palau Palau (after a transitional period as a Republic since 1981, and before part of the U.S. Trust territory of the Pacific) becomes independent from its former trustee, having been a mandate of the Japanese Empire before UN trusteeship.
1997 United Kingdom Hong Kong The British overseas territory of Hong Kong is given to People's Republic of China.
1999 Portugal Macau Macau is given to People's Republic of China. It is the last in a series of coastal enclaves that militarily stronger powers had obtained through treaties from the Ming and Qing Empire which ruled China. Macau, like Hong Kong, is not organised into the existing provincial structure applied to other provinces of the People's Republic of China, but is guaranteed an autonomous system of government within the People's Republic of China as a "Special Administrative Region" or S.A.R.
2002 Indonesia East Timor East Timor formally achieves independence after a transitional UN administration, three years after Indonesia ended its quarter-century occupation of the former Portuguese colony.
2006 Serbia and Montenegro Montenegro
2011 Sudan South Sudan South Sudan formally achieves independence.

انظر أيضاً

References

  1. ^ "World War Two in Cemal Nadir Cartoons". Afternoon Map.
  2. ^ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 255–257. ISBN 978-0-02-865965-7.
  3. ^ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808-1826: Old and New World Origins (1995)
  4. ^ "الاستعمار". الموسوعة العربية. 2007.
  5. ^ Jacques Foccart, counsellor to Charles de Gaulle, Georges Pompidou and Jacques Chirac for African matters, recognized it in 1995 to Jeune Afrique review. See also Foccart parle, interviews with Philippe Gaillard, Fayard – Jeune Afrique (بالفرنسية) and also "The man who ran Francafrique – French politician Jacques Foccart's role in France's colonization of Africa under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle – Obituary" in The National Interest, Fall 1997
  6. ^ Spain proffered a treaty of recognition in 1857, but it was rejected by the Argentine legislature.
  7. ^ أ ب The Japanese rule over French Indochina is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.
  8. ^ The Italian rule over Ethiopia is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.
  9. ^ Occupied by Germany.
  10. ^ أ ب The Japanese rule over the Dutch East Indies is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.
  11. ^ Occupied by Germany.
  12. ^ The Japanese rule over large parts of China is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.

Further reading

  • Bailey, Thomas A. A diplomatic history of the American people (1969) online free
  • Betts, Raymond F. Decolonisation (2nd ed. 2004)
  • Betts, Raymond F. France and Decolonisation, 1900–1960 (1991)
  • Butler, Larry, and Sarah Stockwell, eds. The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonisation (2013) excerpt
  • Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonisation (Bloomsbury, 2002).
  • Chamberlain, Muriel E. ed. Longman Companion to European Decolonisation in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 2014)
  • Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonisation (Routledge, 2014).
  • Cooper, Frederick. "French Africa, 1947–48: Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation." Critical Inquiry (2014) 40#4 pp: 466–478. in JSTOR
  • Darwin, John. "Decolonisation and the End of Empire" in Robin W. Winks, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire - Vol. 5: Historiography (1999) 5: 541-57. online
  • Grimal, Henri. Decolonisation: The British, Dutch, and Belgian Empires, 1919–1963 (1978).
  • Hyam, Ronald. Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968 (2007) excerpt
  • Ikeda, Ryo. The Imperialism of French Decolonisation: French Policy and the Anglo-American Response in Tunisia and Morocco (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)
  • Jansen, Jan C. & Jürgen Osterhammel. Decolonisation: A Short History (Princeton UP, 2017). online
  • Jones, Max, et al. "Decolonising imperial heroes: Britain and France." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 42#5 (2014): 787–825.
  • Lawrence, Adria K. Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire (Cambridge UP, 2013) online reviews
  • McDougall, James. "The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonisation of France, 1945–1962," The Journal of Modern History 89#4 (December 2017) pp 772–811 excerpt
  • MacQueen, Norrie. The Decolonisation of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire (1997).
  • Monroe, Elizabeth. Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914-1956 (1963) online
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonisation (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. Memories of Post-Imperial Nations: The Aftermath of Decolonisation, 1945–2013 (2015) excerpt; Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan
  • Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonisation: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France (2006)
  • Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford University Press, 2004).
  • Smith, Simon C. Ending empire in the Middle East: Britain, the United States and post-war decolonisation, 1945–1973 (Routledge, 2013)
  • Smith, Tony. "A comparative study of French and British decolonisation." Comparative Studies in Society and History (1978) 20#1 pp: 70–102. online
  • Smith, Tony. "The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946–58." Journal of Contemporary History (1974): 217–247. in JSTOR
  • Strayer, Robert. “Decolonisation, Democratisation, and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective,” Journal of World History 12#2 (2001), 375–406. online
  • Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Lawrence J. Butler. Crises of Empire: Decolonisation and Europe's imperial states (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015)
  • White, Nicholas. Decolonisation: the British experience since 1945 (2nd ed. Routledge, 2014) excerpt online

مصادر رئيسية

  • Le Sueur, James D. ed. The Decolonisation Reader (Routledge, 2003)
  • Madden, Frederick, ed. he End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948 : Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth - Vol. 1 (2000) online at Questia, 596pp
  • Mansergh, Nicholas, ed. Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952-1962 (1963) online at Questia
  • Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: Foreign Policy and the Span of Empire, 1689-1971: A Documentary History - Vol. 4 (1972) online at Questia 712pp; Covers 1872 to 1968.

وصلات خارجية

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