سوريا تحت حكم حزب البعث

(تم التحويل من Ba'athist Syria)
"الجمهورية العربية السورية" redirects here. For الدولة المعروفة باسم الجمهورية العربية السورية والتي كانت قائمة من عام 1961 حتى 1963, see الجمهورية السورية الثانية.
الجمهورية العربية السورية

1963–2024
علم سوريا
العلم
(1980–2024)
Coat of arms of Syria.svg
الدرع
(1980–2024)
الشعار الحادي: وَحْدَةٌ، حُرِّيَّةٌ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ
Syria (orthographic projection) disputed.svg
سوريا باللون الأخضر الداكن، المطالبات الإقليمية لسوريا على محافظة هاتاي التركية وهضبة الجولان المحتلة من قبل إسرائيل باللون الأخضر الفاتح
Syria - Location Map (2013) - SYR - UNOCHA.svg
العاصمة
و أكبر مدينة
دمشق
33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.500°N 36.300°E / 33.500; 36.300
اللغات الرسميةالعربية[1]
الجماعات العرقية
(2024)[2][3][4]
90% عرب
9% أكراد
1% أخرى
الدين
(2024)[2]
صفة المواطنسوري
الحكومةجمهورية رئاسية مركزية بعثية جديدة[5]
الرئيس 
• 1963
لؤي الأتاسي
• 1963–1966
أمين الحافظ
• 1966–1970
نور الدين الأتاسي
• 1970–1971
أحمد الخطيب (بالإنابة)
• 1971–2000
حافظ الأسد
• 2000
عبد الحليم خدام (بالإنابة)
• 2000–2024
بشار الأسد
رئيس الوزراء 
• 1963 (الأول)
خالد العظم
• 2024 (الأخير)
محمد غازي الجلالي
نائب رئيس سوريا 
• 1963–1964 (الأول)
محمد عمران
• 2006–2024 (الأخير)
نجاح العطار
• 2024 (الأخير)
فيصل مقداد
التشريعمجلس الشعب
الحقبة التاريخية
8 مارس 1963
21–23 فبراير 1966
13 نوفمبر 1970
6–25 أكتوبر 1973
1976–1982
2000–2001
2011–2024
8 ديسمبر 2024
المساحة
• الإجمالية
185.180[7] km2 (71.498 sq mi) (رقم 87)
• الماء (%)
1.1
التعداد
• تقدير 2024
▲ 25.000.753[8] (رقم 57)
• الكثافة
118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (رقم 70)
ن.م.إ. (ق.ش.م.)تقدير 2015 
• الإجمالي
50.28 بليون دولار [9]
• للفرد
2.900 دولار [9]
ن.م.إ.  (الإسمي)تقدير 2020 
• الإجمالي
11.08 بليون دولار [9]
• للفرد
533 دولار
جيني (2022)26.6[10]
low
م.ت.ب. (2022)0.557[11]
medium · رقم 157
العملةالليرة السورية (SYP)
التوقيتالتوقيت المحلي
مفتاح الهاتف+963
كود آيزو 3166SY
النطاق العلوي للإنترنت.sy
سوريا.
سبقها		 تلاها
1963
الجمهورية السورية الثانية
1967
هضبة الجولان
1974
قوة الأمم المتحدة لمراقبة فض الاشتباك
2024
الحكومة الانتقالية السورية
شمال وشرق سوريا
الحكومة المؤقتة السورية
حكومة الإنقاذ السورية
غرفة العمليات الجنوبية
الجيش السوري الحر
التنف
اليوم جزء منسوريا

سوريا تحت حكم حزب البعث، رسمياً الجمهورية العربية السورية، هي دولة كانت قائمة بين عام 1963 و2024 تحت حكم حزب البعث الاشتراكي. إلى جانب العراق من عام 1968 حتى 2003، كانت واحدة من دولتين بعثيتين موجودتين. حكمت عائلة الأسد سوريا من عام 1971 حتى هجمات المعارضة السورية عام 2024، وسقوط النظام.

نشأت الدولة في أعقاب الانقلاب السوري 1963 وقادها ضباط عسكريون علويون، وأطاح حافظ الأسد بالرئيس صلاح جديد في الحركة التصحيحية عام 1970. أدت المقاومة ضد حكم الأسد إلى مذبحة حماة 1982. توفي حافظ الأسد عام 2000 وخلفه نجله بشار الأسد. أدت الاحتجاجات ضد حكم الأسد عام 2011 أثناء ثورات الربيع العربي إلى الحرب الأهلية السورية، مما أضعف الحكم الإقليمي للحكومة البعثية. في ديسمبر 2024، بلغت سلسلة من الهجمات المفاجئة التي شنتها فصائل معارضة مختلفة ذروتها في انهيار النظام. وأفادت روسيا أن الأسد فر إلى موسكو وحصل على اللجوء السياسي.[12]

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التاريخ

انقلاب 1963

المقالة الرئيسية: الانقلاب السوري 1963

After the 1961 coup that terminated the political union between Egypt and Syria, the instability which followed eventually culminated in the 8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.[13][14] Since the 1963 seizure of power by its Military Committee, the Ba'ath party ruled Syria as a totalitarian state. Ba'athists took control over country's politics, education, culture, religion and surveilled all aspects of civil society through its powerful Mukhabarat (secret police). Syrian Arab Armed forces and secret police were integrated with the Ba'ath party apparatus; after the purging of traditional civilian and military elites by the new regime.[15]

Hafez al-Assad, president of Syria (1970–2000)

The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a "radical break" in modern Syrian history, after which Ba'ath party monopolised power in the country to establish a one-party state and shaped a new socio-political order by enforcing its state ideology.[16]

انقلاب 1966

المقالة الرئيسية: الانقلاب السوري 1966

On 23 February 1966, the neo-Ba'athist Military Committee carried out an intra-party rebellion against the Ba'athist Old Guard (Aflaq and Bitar), imprisoned President Amin al-Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.[14] Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,[17] when he was deposed by Hafiz al-Assad, who at the time was Minister of Defense.[18]

The coup led to the schism within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April pre-war aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.[19] When the Six-Day War broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours.[20] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.[21] Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat during the "Black September" (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970) hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.[22]

حافظ الأسد (1970–2000)

المقالة الرئيسية: الحركة التصحيحية and رئاسة حافظ الأسد

The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Syrian Corrective movement, a bloodless military coup that removed Jadid and installed Hafiz al-Assad as the strongman of the government.[18] General Hafiz al-Assad transformed a neo-Ba'athist party state into a totalitarian dictatorship marked by his pervasive grip on the party, armed forces, secret police, media, education sector, religious and cultural spheres and all aspects of civil society. He assigned Alawite loyalists to key posts in the military forces, bureaucracy, intelligence and the ruling elite. A cult of personality revolving around Hafiz and his family became a core tenet of Ba'athist ideology,[23] which espoused that Assad dynasty was destined to rule perennially.[24] On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.[25] The village of Quneitra was largely destroyed by the Israeli army. In the late 1970s, an Islamist uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,[26] when more than 40,000 people were killed by Syrian military troops and Ba'athist paramilitaries.[27][28] It has been described as the "single deadliest act" of violence perpetrated by any state upon its own population in modern Arab history[27][28]

In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. The country participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along with Palestine and Jordan. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in 2000.[29]

بشار الأسد (2000–2024)

المقالة الرئيسية: رئاسة بشار الأسد

Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected president in an election in which he ran unopposed.[13] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.[30] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.[23][31][32] On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.[33] In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and Hasakeh.[34] In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.[35] Assassination of Rafic Hariri in 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popular Intifada in Lebanon, known as "the Cedar Revolution" which forced the Assad regime to end its 29-year old of military occupation in Lebanon.[36] On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.[37]

الحرب الأهلية

المقالة الرئيسية: الحرب الأهلية السورية
الوضع العسكري في ديسمبر 2015. الأراضي تحت سيطرة تنظيم الدولة الإسلامية باللون الرمادي.


The Syrian civil war began in 2011 as a part of the wider Arab Spring, a wave of upheaval throughout the Arab World. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule. Since spring 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,[38][39] though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.[40] The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.[41] Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.[42]

Pro-Assad demonstration in the capital Damascus after US-led missile strikes in April 2018

The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are Alawites,[42] affiliated with Shia Islam. As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominated Iran and the Lebanese Hezbollah. According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sides[43][44][45][46] and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.[47] Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned. According to the Syrian government, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups."[48] To escape the violence, tens of thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan, Iraq and [49] Lebanon, as well to Turkey.[50] The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time,[51] while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000.

Aerial view of Damascus in 2020

UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed in the 11 months until February 2012,[52][53] Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.[54][55] Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.[56] Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.[57] Human Rights Watch accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields when they advanced on opposition held-areas.[58] Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha and soldiers.[42] HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals.[59] The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature in its February 2012 report, which also includes documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible for displacement of civilians.[60]

Being ranked 8th last on the 2024 Global Peace Index and 4th worst in the 2024 Fragile States Index,[61] Syria is one of the most dangerous places for journalists. Freedom of press is extremely limited, and the country is ranked 2nd worst in the 2024 World Press Freedom Index.[62][63] Syria is the most corrupt country in the Middle East[64][65] and was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index.[66] The country has also become the epicentre of a state-sponsored multi-billion dollar illicit drug cartel, the largest in the world.[67][68][69][70] The civil war has resulted in more than 600,000 deaths,[71] with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the total civilian casualties.[أ] The war led to a massive refugee crisis, with an estimated 7.6 million internally displaced people (July 2015 UNHCR figure) and over 5 million refugees (July 2017 registered by UNHCR).[80] The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in poverty and 80% facing food insecurity.[ب]

The Arab League, the United States, the European Union states, the Gulf Cooperation Council states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters.[42] China and Russia have avoided condemning the government or applying sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.[85][86][87] The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,[88] but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis.[87] The latest attempts to resolve the crisis had been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan, as a special envoy to resolve the Syrian crisis in the Middle East.[42] Some analysts however have posited the partitioning the region into a Sunnite east, Kurdish north and Shiite/Alawite west.[89]


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جمود الصراع (2020–2024)

اعتبارًا من عام 2020، أصبح الصراع في حالة جمود.[90] على الرغم من سيطرة قوات المعارضة على ما يقرب من 30% من البلاد، إلا أن القتال العنيف توقف إلى حد كبير وكان هناك اتجاه إقليمي متزايد نحو تطبيع العلاقات مع نظام بشار الأسد.[90]

سقوط نظام الأسد (2024)

انظر أيضاً: هجمات المعارضة السورية 2024 and سقوط نظام الأسد
الوضع العسكري بعد بدء هجمات المعارضة في أواخر 2024.
الأراضي تحت سيطرة قوات سوريا الديمقراطية (بالأصفر)، داعش (بالرمادي)، الجيش السوري (بالأحمر)، الجيش الوطني السوري وتركيا (الأخضر الفاتح)، غرفة العمليات الجنوبية (بالوردي)، هيئة تحرير الشام (بالأبيض)، جيش مغاوير الثورة والولايات المتحدة (بالأخضر المزرق).

في 27 نوفمبر 2024، اندلعت أعمال العنف مرة أخرى. سيطرت فصائل المعارضة بقيادة هيئة تحرير الشام الإسلامية والجيش الوطني السوري المدعوم من تركيا على حلب، مما دفع الرئيس السوري بشار الأسد، بدعم من روسيا، إلى شن حملة غارات جوية انتقامية. أسفرت الضربات التي استهدفت المراكز السكانية والعديد من المستشفيات في مدينة إدلب التي تسيطر عليها المقاومة، عن مقتل 25 شخصًا على الأقل، وفقًا لمجموعة الخوذ البيضاء التطوعية. أصدرت دول حلف الناتو بيانًا مشتركًا يدعو إلى حماية المدنيين والبنية التحتية الحيوية لمنع المزيد من النزوح وضمان وصول المساعدات الإنسانية. وشددوا على الحاجة الملحة إلى حل سياسي بقيادة سورية، وفقًا لقرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة رقم 2254، الذي يدعو إلى الحوار بين الحكومة السورية وقوات المعارضة. واستمرت هجمات المعارضة في 27 نوفمبر 2024، وواصلت تقدمها في محافظة حماة بعد سيطرتها على حلب.[91][92][93]

في 29 نوفمبر، تخلت قوات المقاومة التابعة الجبهة الجنوبية عن جهود المصالحة مع الحكومة السورية وشنت هجوماً في الجنوب، أملاً في تنفيذ حركة كماشة على دمشق.[94][95]

في 4 ديسمبر 2024، اندلعت اشتباكات عنيفة في محافظة حماة، حيث اشتبك الجيش السوري مع المقاومة بقيادة إسلاميين في محاولة لوقف تقدمها نحو مدينة حماة الرئيسية. وزعمت القوات الحكومية أنها شنت هجومًا مضادًا بدعم جوي، مما دفع فصائل المقاومة، بما في ذلك هيئة تحرير الشام، إلى التراجع على بعد ستة أميال من المدينة. ومع ذلك، وعلى الرغم من التعزيزات، استولت المقاومة على المدينة في 5 ديسمبر.[96] وأدى القتال إلى نزوح واسع النطاق، حيث فر ما يقرب من 50.000 شخص من المنطقة، وأفادت التقارير عن سقوط أكثر من 600 شخص، بما في ذلك 104 مدنياً.[97]

في مساء 6 ديسمبر 2024، سيطرت قوات الجبهة الجنوبية على مدينة السويداء، في جنوب سوريا، بعد انسحاب القوات الموالية للحكومة من المدينة.[98][99] في الوقت نفسه، تمكنت قوات سوريا الديمقراطية بقيادة كردية من الاستيلاء على مدينة دير الزور من القوات الموالية للحكومة، والتي غادرت أيضًا مدينة تدمر في وسط محافظة حمص.[100][101] بحلول منتصف الليل، سيطرت قوات المعارضة في محافظة درعا الجنوبية على عاصمتها درعا، بالإضافة إلى 90% من المحافظة، بينما انسحبت القوات الموالية للحكومة باتجاه العاصمة دمشق.[102] في هذه الأثناء، سيطر جيش مغاوير الثورة، وهي جماعة معارضة مختلفة تدعمها الولايات المتحدة، على تدمر في هجوم أطلق من منطقة خفض التصعيد في التنف.[103]

في 7 ديسمبر 2024، انسحبت القوات الموالية للحكومة من محافظة القنيطرة، التي تحد هضبة الجولان المحتلة من قبل إسرائيل.[104] في ذلك اليوم، ساعد الجيش الإسرائيلي قوة الأمم المتحدة لمراقبة فض الاشتباك في صد هجوم.[105]

في 7 ديسمبر 2024، دخلت الجبهة الجنوبية ضواحي دمشق، التي تعرضت في الوقت نفسه لهجوم من الشمال من قبل الجيش السوري الحر. ومع تقدم المقاومة، فر الأسد من دمشق إلى موسكو، حيث منحه الرئيس الروسي ڤلاديمير پوتن اللجوء السياسي.[106][بحاجة لمصادر إضافية] في اليوم التالي، 8 ديسمبر، استولت قوات المعارضة السورية على مدينتي حمص ودمشق. وبعد سقوط دمشق، انهارت الجمهورية العربية السورية، وشكل رئيس الوزراء محمد غازي الجلالي حكومة انتقالية سورية بإذن من المعارضة.[107]

السياسة والحكومة

Since the 1963 seizure of power by its neo-Ba'athist Military Committee until the fall of the Assad regime in 2024, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party governed Syria as a totalitarian police state.[ت] After a period of intra-party strife, Hafez al-Assad gained control of the party following the 1970 coup d'état and his family dominated the country's politics.[2][108][109]

After Ba'athist Syria's adoption of a new constitution in 2012, its political system operated in the framework of a presidential state[110] that nominally permitted the candidacy of individuals who were not part of the Ba'athist-controlled National Progressive Front founded in 1972.[111][112] In practice, Ba'athist Syria remained a one-party state, which banned any independent or opposition political activity.[113][114]

السلطة القضائية

There was no independent judiciary in the Syrian Arab Republic, since all judges and prosecutors were required to be Ba'athist appointees.[115] Syria's judicial branches included the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, and the State Security Courts. The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.[116] Syria had three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handled questions of personal and family law.[117]

Article 3(2) of the 1973 constitution declared Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The judicial system had elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) was essentially a codified sharia;[118] the Code of Personal Status was applied to Muslims by sharia courts.[119]

الانتخابات

Elections were conducted through a sham process; characterised by wide-scale rigging, repetitive voting and absence of voter registration and verification systems.[120][121][122] Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the People's Council of Syria.[123] Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people."[124] However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Various independent observers and international organizations denounced the Assad regime's electoral conduct as a scam; with the United Nations condemning it as illegitimate elections with "no mandate".[125][126][127][128] Electoral Integrity Project's 2022 Global report designated Syrian elections as a "facade" with the worst electoral integrity in the world alongside Comoros and Central African Republic.[129][130]قالب:Claer

انظر أيضاً

الهوامش

  1. ^ Sources:[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79]
  2. ^ [81][82][83][84]
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