قائمة الأسر والبلدان التوركية
قائمة الأسر، الدويلات أو الامبراطوريات التالية الناطقة بالتوركية، من أصول توركية، أو كلاهما. يوجد حالياً ستة دول سيادية تركية معترف بها. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، هناك ستة كيانات فدرالية روسية والتي تشكل فيها اللغة التوركية الأغلبية، وثلاث تشكل فيها التوركية الأقلية، وكذلك، القرم، الأراضي المتنازع عليها بين أوكرانيا وروسيا حيث اللغات التوركية تشغل الأقلية. هناك عدد من الكونفدراليات، الأسر، والامبراطوريات التوركية على مدار التاريخ عبر القارة الأوراسية.
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كيانات معاصرة لديها لغة توركية واحدة على الأقل معترف بها كلغة رسمية
يوم الجمهورية
الاسم | السنوات |
---|---|
أذربيجان | 28 مايو، 1918 |
تركيا | 29 أكتوبر، 1923 |
قيرغيزستان | 14 أكتوبر، 1924 |
أوزبكستان | 27 أكتوبر، 1924 |
قزخستان | 19 يونيو، 1925 |
تركمنستان | 27 أكتوبر، 1991 |
الدول المستقلة الحالية
الاسم | السنوات | |
---|---|---|
إيطاليا | 1923 | 75% أتراك |
أذربيجان | 1991 | 91.6% أذريون، 0.43% أتراك، 0.29% تتار.[1] |
قزخستان | 1991 | 63.1% قزخ, 2.9% أوزبك، 1.4% أويغور، 1.3% تتار، 0.6% أتراك، 0.5% Azerbaijanis، 0.1% قيرغيز.[2] |
قيرغيزستان | 1991 | 70.9% قيرغيز، 14.3% أوزبك، 0.9% أوغيور، 0.7% أتراك، 0.6% قزخ، 0.6% تتار، 0.3% أذريون.[3] |
تركمنستان | 1991 | 75.6% تركمان، 9.2% أوزبك، 2.0% قزخ، 1.1% أتراك، 0.7% تتار[4] |
أوزبكستان | 1991 | 71.4% أوزبك، 4.1% قزخ، 2.4% تتار، 2.1% Karakalpaks، 1% تتار القرم، 0.8% قيرغيز، 0.6% تركمان، 0.5% أتراك، 0.2% أذريون، 0.2% أويغور، 0.2% بشكير.[5] |
دول بحكم الأمر الواقع
الاسم | السنوات | |
---|---|---|
قبرص الشمالية[6] | 1983 | 67.54% قبارصة أتراك، 32.45% أتراك[بحاجة لمصدر] |
الكيانات الفدرالية الروسية
الاسم | |
---|---|
باشكورتوستان | 2010 – 29.5% بشكير، 25.4% تتار، 2.7% تشوڤاش |
تشوڤاشيا | 2010 – 67.7% تشوڤاس، 2.8% تتار |
قرة چاي - چركسيا | 2010 – 41.0% Karachays, 3.3% Nogais |
تتارستان | 2010 – 53.2% تتار، 3.1% تشوڤاس |
توڤا | 2010 – 82% Tuvans, 0.4% Khakas |
جمهورية ساخا | 2010 – 49.9% Yakuts, 0.2% Dolgans, 0.9% تتار |
الاسم | |
---|---|
جمهورية ألطاي | 2010 – 34.5% Altais، 6.2% قزخ |
قبردينو - بلقاريا | 2010 – 12.7% Balkars |
القرم | 2014 – 12.6% تتار القرم، 2.3% تتار |
خقاسيا | 2010 – 12.1% Khakas |
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مناطق الحكم الذاتي
الاسم | |
---|---|
گاگاؤزيا في مولدوڤا | 2004 – 82.1% الگاگاؤز.[7] |
شينجيانگ في الصين | 2000 – 45.21% أويغور، 6.74% قزخ، 0.86% قيرغيز، 0.066% أوزبك، 0.024% تتار صينيون، 0.02% سالار |
Karakalpakstan في أوزبكستان | 36% أوزبك, 32% Karakalpaks, 25% قزخ[8] |
نخجوان في أذربيجان | 99% أذريون[9] |
ناحية شنخوا سالار الذاتية في في الصين | 2000 – 61.14% سالار |
Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County في الصين |
الاتحادات، الأسر والدويلات التوركية التاريخية
الاتحادات القبلية
Tiele people | Dingling | Yenisei Kirghiz[12] | Cumans | Basmyl | Chigils |
Onogurs | أشينا | Toquz Oghuz | Kipchaks | Kankalis | Yagma |
أوغوز | Sabir people | Bulgars | Shatuo | Karluks | أتلات |
الأسر والدويلات التوركية
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أوروپا
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
امبراطورية الخزر | The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people, who created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Kaganate.[16] | 6th–11th century | Balanjar 650–720 ca., Samandar (city) 720s–750, Atil 750-ca.965–969 | |
بلغاريا الكبرى | 632–668 | Phanagoria 632–665 | ||
الامبراطورية البلغارية الأولى | Tengrist Turkic pre-Christianization;[17] became Slavic post-Christianization | 681–1018 | Pliska 681–893, Preslav 893–972, سكوپيه 972–992, Ohrid 992–1018 | |
بلغاريا ڤولگا | القرن السابع–ع. 1240 | Bolghar, Bilär | ||
Terter dynasty | 1280–1323 |
الشرق الأوسط وشمال أفريقيا
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
طولونيون | كان الطولونيون أسرة من أصل توركي [18] and were the first independent dynasty to rule Islamic Egypt, as well as much of Syria. | 868–905 | القطائع | |
الأسرة الإخشيدية | أسسها مملوك توركي[19][20][21] ، كان الخليفة قد عينه حاكماً.[22] | 935–969 | ||
الدولة البورية | 1104–1154 | دمشق | ||
زنكيون | أسرة من أصل توركي أوغوزي.[23] | 1127–1250 | حلب | |
بن رسول | 1228–1455 | |||
المماليك البحرية | كان النصف الأول من سلطنة المماليك مهيمن عليها الأسرة البحرية التوركية الكيپتشاكية، بعد غزو المنغول لسهول كيپتشاك. | 1250–1389 | القاهرة | |
بنو عساف | سيطرو على المنطقة الواقعة بين بيروت وجبل لبنان | 1306–1591 | غزير |
منطقة المغرب العربي
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
الأسرة القرمانلية | The Karamanli dynasty was an independent or quasi-independent,[24] who ruled from 1711 to 1835 in Tripolitania (Tripoli and its surroundings in present-day Libya). At their peak, the Karamanlis' influence reached Cyrenaica and Fezzan, covering most of Libya. The founder of the dynasty was Pasha Ahmed Karamanli, a descendant of the Karamanids. | 1711–1835 | طرابلس |
شبه القارة الهندية
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
الأسرة المملوكية | 1206–1290 | دلهي | ||
Qarlughid Dynasty | 1224–1266 | Ghazna, Binban | ||
Khalji Dynasty | 1290–1320 | دلهي | ||
Tughlaq Dynasty | 1320–1414 | دلهي | ||
Ilyas Shahi dynasty | 1342–1487 | Sonargaon | ||
Bahmani Sultanate | 1347–1527 | Gulbarga (1347–1425) Bidar (1425–1527) |
||
سلطنة البنغال | 1342–1538 1555–1576 |
Gaur Pandua Sonargaon |
||
Malwa Sultanate | 1392–1562 | Dhar وماندو | ||
Bidar Sultanate | 1489–1619 | |||
Adil Shahi dynasty | 1490–1686 | Bijapur | ||
Qutb Shahi Dynasty | 1518–1687 | Golconda / حيدر أباد | ||
امبراطورية المغل | Founded by Turco-Mongol ruler Babur, adopted the Persian language in later periods.[25][26][27][28] | 1526–1857 | Agra 1526–1571, Fatehpur Sikri 1571–1585, لاهور 1585–1598, Agra 1598–1648, Shahjahanabad/دلهي 1648–1857 | |
Tarkhan Dynasty | 1554–1591 | السند | ||
Asaf Jahi Dynasty | 1724–1948 | حيدر أباد |
الأسرات التوركية المصينة
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
يان العظمى | General An Lushan rebelled against Tang Dynasty | 756–763 | Luoyang 756–757, Yecheng 757–759, Fanyang 759, Luoyang 759–762 | |
تانگ اللاحقة | 923–936 | Daming County 923, Luoyang 923–936 | ||
جين اللاحقة[29] | The Later Jin founder, Shi Jingtang, claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry. | 936–947 | Taiyuan 936, Luoyang 937, Kaifeng 937–947 | |
هان اللاحقة | Sources conflict as to the origin of the Later Han and Northern Han Emperors; some indicate Shatuo ancestry while another claims that the Emperors claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry.[30] | 947–951 | Kaifeng | |
هان الشمالية | Same family as Later Han. Sources conflict as to the origin of the Later Han and Northern Han Emperors; some indicate Shatuo ancestry while another claims that the Emperors claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry.[30] | 951–979 | Taiyuan |
الدويلات التوركية الفارسية
الاسم | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ghaznavid Empire | Ruled by a thoroughly Persianized family of Turkic mamluk origin[31][32] | 962–1186 | Ghazna 977–1163, Lahore 1163–1186 | |
الامبراطورية السلجوقية | Ruled by a clan[33] of originally Oghuz Turkic descent.[31][34][35][36] | 1037–1194 | Nishapur 1037–1043, Rey, Iran 1043–1051, اصفطهان 1051–1118, Hamadan Western capital 1118–1194, Merv Eastern capital (1118–1153) | |
سلطنة الروم | Persianized Oghuz Turkic dynasty[37] | 1077–1307 | İznik, Iconium (قونية) | |
الأسرة الخوارزمية | Ruled by a family of Turkic mamluk origin.[38] | 1077–1231/1256 | Gurganj 1077–1212, سمرقند 1212–1220, Ghazna 1220–1221, تبريد 1225–1231 | |
Kara Koyunlu | Kara Koyunlu was an Oghuz Turkic tribal federation. | 1375–1468 | تبريز | |
Aq Qoyunlu | Aq Qoyunlu was an tribal federation from Bayandur clan of the Oghuz Turks[39] | 1378–1501 | ديار بكر 1453–1471، تبريز 1468 – 6 يناير 1478 |
الدويلات المنغولية-التوركية
الاسم | السنوات | العاصمة | ملاحظات | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
خانية Merkit | القرن 11–1200 | Scholars traditionally believe that they were the Turkic people [40][41] | ||
Kerait khanate | القرن 11-13 | |||
Ongud | 1162–1227 | Olon Süme | Were a Turkic tribe[42][43][44]
later mongolzied whit in Ongut-Mongol marriage alliance and Mongol empire. |
|
Naiman Khanate | −1204 | |||
Chagatai Khanate | 1225–ع. 1340 | Almaliq, Qarshi | ||
القبيل الذهبي | ع. 1240–1502 | Sarai Batu | Founded as an appanage of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde gradually became Turkicized after the Empire's fragmentation | |
الامبراطورية التيمورية | 1370–1506 | سمرقند 1370–1505، هرات 1505–1507 | Belonging to Barlas were a Mongol and later Turkicized nomadic confederation in Central Asia. | |
Shaybanid Khanate | 1428–1599 | |||
Kazan Khanate | 1438–1552 | Kazan | ||
خانية القرم | 1441–1783 | Bakhchisaray | ||
Nogai Khanate | 1440s–1634 | Saray-Jük | ||
خانية القزخ | 1456–1847 | Turkistan | ||
موغليستان | 1462–1591 | |||
القبيل العظيم | 1466–1502 | ساراي | ||
خانية أستراخان | 1466–1556 | Xacitarxan | ||
خانية صربيا | 1490–1598 | Tyumen حتى 1493، Qashliq من 1493 | ||
خانية بخارى | 1500–1785 | بخارى | ||
خانية خيڤا | Yadigarids: 1511–1804[45] Qungrats 1804–1920 | خيڤا | ||
Yarkent Khanate | 1514–1705 | Yarkent | ||
Arghun dynasty | 1520–1554 | Bukkur | ||
Lesser Nogai Horde | 1449 or 1557–1783 | Voli Sarai | ||
Budzhak Horde | 17th century–18th century | |||
Khanate of Kokand | 1709–1876 | Kokand | ||
إمارة بخارى | 1785–1920 | بخارى |
الخانيات التابعة
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | العاصمة | خريطة |
---|---|---|---|---|
خانية قاسم | دويلة منغورية-توركية | 1452–1681 | قاسميوڤ | |
Kumul Khanate | دويلة منغورية-توركية | 1696–1930 | Hami City | |
خانيات أذربيجان الإيرانية | The Khanates were mostly ruled of Azerbaijanis origin. | القرن 18-19 | مختلفة كثيرة | |
خانيات شمال القوقاز | The Khanates were mostly ruled of Azerbaijanis origin. | القرن 18-19 | مختلفة كثيرة |
حكومات مقاطعات وجمهوريات سابقة
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | خريطة | العاصمة |
---|---|---|---|---|
Provisional Government of Western Thrace later Independent Government of Western Thrace | Republic of Western Thrace was a small, short-lived partially recognized republic established in Western Thrace from August 31 to October 25, 1913. It encompassed the area surrounded by the rivers Maritsa (Evros) in the east, Mesta (Nestos) in the west, the Rhodope Mountains in the north and the Aegean Sea in the south. Its total territory was c. 8.600 km².[46] | 1913 | Komotini | |
Crimean People's Republic | 1917–1918 | Bakhchysarai | ||
Idel-Ural State | 1917–1918 | |||
Alash Autonomy | A provisional autonomous Kazakh-Kyrgyz administration. Later integrated into Soviet Union under Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic umbrella. | 1917–1920 | Semey | |
Republic of Aras | 1918–1919 | Nakhchivan (city) | ||
Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus | 1918–1919 | Kars | ||
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic | 1918–1920 | Ganja, Azerbaijan until Sep 1918, Baku | ||
Government of the Grand National Assembly | A provisional and revolutionary Turkish government based in Ankara during the Turkish War of Independence. | 1920–1923 | Ankara | |
People's Republic of Tannu Tuva | 1921–1944 | Kyzyl | ||
First East Turkestan Republic | First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic founded in 1933. It was centered on the city of Kashgar in what is today the People's Republic of China-administered Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. | 1933–1934 | Kashgar | |
Republic of Hatay | Also known informally as the Republic of Hatay as Hatay State. | 1938–1939 | Antakya | |
East Turkistan Republic | 1944–1949 | Ghulja | ||
Azerbaijan People's Government | Established in Iranian Azerbaijan, the APG's capital was the city of Tabriz. Its establishment and demise were a part of the Iran crisis, which was a precursor to the Cold War. | 1945–1946 | Tabriz | |
Turkish Cypriot General Committee[47] | 1963–1967 | نيقوسيا | ||
Provisional Cypriot Turkish Administration[47] | 1967–1974 | نيقوسيا | ||
Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration | 1974–1975 | نيقوسيا | ||
Turkish Federated State of Cyprus | 1975–1983 | نيقوسيا |
الجمهوريات السوڤيتية
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | خريطة | العاصمة |
---|---|---|---|---|
ملف:Flag of Khiva 1920-1923.svg Khorezm People's Soviet Republic | 1920–1924 | خيڤا | ||
Bukhara People's Soviet Republic | 1920–1924 | بخارى | ||
Azerbaijan SSR | 1920–1991 | باكو | ||
Uzbek SSR | 1924–1991 | سمرقند 1924–1930، طشقند 1930–1991 | ||
Turkmen SSR | 1924–1991 | Ashgabat | ||
Kazakh SSR | 1936–1991 | ألماطي | ||
Kyrgyz SSR | 1936–1991 | Bishkek |
الجمهورية السوڤيتية الذاتية
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | خريطة | العاصمة |
---|---|---|---|---|
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1918–1924 | طشقند | ||
Bashkir ASSR | 1919–1990 | أوفا | ||
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic | 1920–1925 | أورنبورگ | ||
Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1920–1990 | Kazan | ||
Yakut ASSR | 1922–1991 | Yakutsk | ||
Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1921–1924 | Vladikavkaz | ||
Nakhchyvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1921–1990 | Nakhchivan (city) | ||
Kazak Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic | 1925–1936 | ألماطي | ||
Chuvash ASSR | 1925–1992 | Cheboksary | ||
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|
1932–1992 | Nukus | ||
Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1936–1991 | Nalchik | ||
Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1944–1957 | |||
Crimean ASSR | 1945–1991 | سيمفروپول | ||
Tuvan ASSR | 1961–1992 | |||
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | 1990–1992 | Gorno-Altaysk |
الاوبلاستات السوڤيتية الذاتية
الاسم | ملاحظات | السنوات | خريطة | العاصمة |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chuvash Autonomous Oblast | 1920–1925 | Cheboksary | ||
Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Oblast | 1921–1936 | Nalchik | ||
Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Oblast | 1922–1926 | Cherkessk | ||
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast | 1922–1991 | |||
Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast | 1924–1936 | Bishkek | ||
Karakalpak Autonomous Oblast | 1925–1932 | To‘rtko‘l | ||
Karachay Autonomous Oblast | 1926–1957 | Mikoyan Shakhar | ||
Khakassian Autonomous Oblast | 1930–1992 | |||
Tuvan Autonomous Oblast | 1944–1961 | Kyzyl |
انظر أيضاً
- شعوب توركية
- هجرة توركية
- الاتحادات القبلية التوركية
- خط زمني للشعوب التوركية (500–1300)
- Turkification
- Nomadic empire
- بدو أوراسيون
الهوامش
- ^ ديموغرافيا أذربيجان.
- ^ ديموغرافيا قزخستان.
- ^ Demographics of Kyrgyzstan
- ^ Demographics of Turkmenistan
- ^ Demographics of Uzbekistan
- ^ Recognized only by Turkey and the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, see Cyprus dispute.
- ^ Gagauzia
- ^ Der Fischer Weltalmanach 2011, Artikel „Karakalpakstan“, S. 496
- ^ http://pop-stat.mashke.org/azerbaijan-ethnic2009.htm
- ^ Veronika Veit, ed. (2007). The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26–31 August 2001. Vol. Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 61. ISBN 3-447-05537-5. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
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has extra text (help) - ^ Michael Robert Drompp (2005). Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history. Vol. Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 9004141294. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
{{cite book}}
:|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed to be of agnatic Chinese descent from Li Ling[10][11]
- ^ Encyclopedia of European peoples, Vol.1, Ed. Carl Waldman, Catherine Mason, (Infobase Publishing Inc., 2006), 475; "The Kipchaks were a loose tribal confederation of Turkics...".
- ^ Vásáry, István, Cumans and Tatars: Oriental military in the pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365, (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 6; "..two Turkic confederacies, the Kipchaks and the Cumans, had merged by the twelfth century.".
- ^ [1]
- ^ Sneath 2007, p. 25.
- ^ Peter Sarris (2011). Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500–700. p. 308.
{{cite book}}
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(help)|ref=
- ^ The Emergence of Muslim Rule in India: Some Historical Disconnects and Missing Links, Tanvir Anjum, Islamic Studies, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Summer 2007), 233.
- ^ Abulafia, David (2011). The Mediterranean in History. p. 170.
{{cite book}}
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(help)|ref=
- ^ Haag, Michael (2012). The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States.
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- ^ Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index. p. 382.
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- ^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 62.
- ^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 191.
- ^ Marshall Cavendish (2006). World and Its Peoples. p. 1213.
- ^ Thackston 1996
- ^ Findley 2005
- ^ Saunders 1970, p.177
- ^ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Tamarind Empire)". Ucalgary.ca. Archived from the original on 2009-08-16. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
{{cite web}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ Wudai Shi, ch. 75. Considering the father was originally called Nieliji without a surname, the fact that his patrilineal ancestors all had Chinese names here indicates that these names were probably all created posthumously after Shi Jingtang became a "Chinese" emperor. Shi Jingtang actually claimed to be a descendant of Chinese historical figures Shi Que and Shi Fen, and insisted that his ancestors went westwards towards non-Han Chinese area during the political chaos at the end of the Han Dynasty in the early 3rd century.
- ^ أ ب According to Old History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 99, and New History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 10. Liu Zhiyuan was of Shatuo origin. According to Wudai Huiyao, vol. 1 Liu Zhiyuan's great-great-grandfather Liu Tuan (劉湍) (titled as Emperor Mingyuan posthumously, granted the temple name of Wenzu) descended from Liu Bing (劉昞), Prince of Huaiyang, a son of Emperor Ming of Han
- ^ أ ب M.A. Amir-Moezzi, "Shahrbanu", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK Archived 2007-03-11 at the Wayback Machine): "... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..."
- ^ Muhammad Qāsim Hindū Šāh Astarābādī Firištah, "History Of The Mohamedan Power In India", Chapter I, "Sultān Mahmūd-e Ghaznavī", p.27: "... "Sabuktegin, the son of Jūkān, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Fīrūz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia. ..."
- ^ Jonathan Dewald, "Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24
- ^ K.A. Luther, "Alp Arslān" in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK): "... Saljuq activity must always be viewed both in terms of the wishes of the sultan and his Khorasanian, Sunni advisors, especially Nezām-al-molk ..."
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK): "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."
- ^ O.Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK Archived 2012-01-22 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ 1.Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire, 29; "Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia","The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian...".
- ^ M. Ismail Marcinkowski, Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey, with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth, member of the British Academy, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7.
- ^ C.E. Bosworth and R. Bulliet, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual , Columbia University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-231-10714-5, p. 275.
- ^ They were always counted as a part of the Mongols within the Mongol Empire, however, scholars traditionally believe that they were the Turkic people, see also: Christopher P. Atwood – Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire ISBN 9780816046713, Facts on File, Inc. 2004.
- ^ Soucek, Svat (2000). A History of Inner Asia (in English). Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-65704-4. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
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: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ René Grousset (1953). The Rise and Splendour of the Chinese Empire. University of California Press. p. 244.
- ^ Lev Nikolaevich Gumilev (1987). Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John. Cambridge University Press. p. 94.
- ^ Kenneth Pletcher (2010). The History of China. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 181.
- ^ Compiled after Y. Bregel, ed. (1999), Firdaws al-iqbal; History of Khorezm. Leiden: Brill.
- ^ "Panayotis D. Cangelaris – The Western Thrace Autonomous Government "Muhtariyet" Issue (1913) Philatelic Exhibit". Cangelaris.com. Retrieved 2016-09-25.
- ^ أ ب [2] KIBRIS'TA ESKİ YÖNETİMLER
قراءات إضافية
- Finkel, Caroline, "Osman's Dream, History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923", 2005, John Murray ISBN 0-465-02396-7
- Findley, C.V., The Turks in World History, 2005, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517726-6
- Forbes Manz, B., The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane, 2002, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63384-2
- Hupchick, D.P., The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism, 2002, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-6417-3
- Lewis, Bernard. "Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire", 1963, University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1060-0.
- Saunders, J.J., The History of the Mongol Conquests, 2001, Routledge & Kegan Ltd. ISBN 978-0-8122-1766-7
- Thackston, W.M., The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor, 2002, Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-375-76137-9
- Vásáry, I., Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365, 2005, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83756-9
- Veronika Veit, ed. (2007). The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26–31 August 2001. Vol. Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-05537-5. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
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