ترنيداد وتوباگو
قالب:Use Trinidad and Tobago English
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago | |
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 العلم
 الدرع
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الشعار الحادي: "Together we aspire, together we achieve" | |
النشيد: "Forged from the Love of Liberty" | |
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| العاصمة | Port of Spain 10°40′0″N 61°30′27″W / 10.66667°N 61.50750°W |
| أكبر مدينة | Chaguanas 10°31′N 61°24′W / 10.517°N 61.400°W |
| اللغات الرسمية | English[1] |
| Other languages | See Languages in Trinidad and Tobago[2] |
| الجماعات العرقية (2011)[3] | |
| الدين (2020)[4] |
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| صفة المواطن |
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| الحكومة | Unitary parliamentary republic |
| Christine Kangaloo | |
| Keith Rowley | |
| Bridgid Annisette-George | |
| Nigel de Freitas | |
| Ivor Archie | |
| Kamla Persad-Bissessar | |
| التشريع | Parliament |
| Senate | |
| House of Representatives | |
| Independence from the United Kingdom | |
• Province of the West Indies Federation | 3 January 1958 – 14 January 1962 |
| 31 August 1962 | |
• Joined the Caribbean Community at the Treaty of Chaguaramas | 1 August 1973 |
• Republic | 1 August 1976[ب] |
| المساحة | |
• الإجمالية | 5,131 km2 (1,981 sq mi) (164th) |
• الماء (%) | negligible |
| التعداد | |
• تقدير 2024 | 1,508,635 [7] (154th) |
• الكثافة | 294/km2 (761.5/sq mi) (34th) |
| ن.م.إ. (ق.ش.م.) | تقدير 2023 |
• الإجمالي | ▲ $43.658 billion[8] (126th) |
• للفرد | ▲ $30,718[8] (58th) |
| ن.م.إ. (الإسمي) | تقدير 2023 |
• الإجمالي |  $27.887 billion[8] (107th) |
• للفرد | $19,621[8] (47th) |
| جيني (2012) | 39.0[9] medium |
| م.ت.ب. (2022) | ▲ 0.814[10] very high · 60th |
| العملة | Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TTD) |
| التوقيت | UTC-4 (AST) |
| صيغة التاريخ | dd/mm/yyyy |
| جانب السواقة | left |
| مفتاح الهاتف | +1 (868) |
| النطاق العلوي للإنترنت | .tt |
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جمهورية ترينيداد وتوباغو (بالإنجليزية: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago) هي دولة تقع في جنوب البحر الكاريبي، على بعد 11 كيلومتراً من فينزويلا. تعتبر ترينيداد وتوباغو أرخبيل مكون من جزيرتين رئيسيتين هما ترينيداد، أكبر جزر ترينيداد وتوباغو، وتوباغو، بالإضافة إلى 21 جزيرة صغيرة أخرى. مساحتها 5128 كم2 وعدد سكانها 1262366 (عام 2000). اللغة الرسمية فيها هي اللغة الإنجليزية. it is situated 11 kilometres (6 nautical miles) northeast off the coast of Venezuela, 130 kilometres (70 nautical miles) south of Grenada, and west of Barbados.[11] [12][13] The capital is Port of Spain, while its largest and most populous municipality is Chaguanas. Despite its proximity to South America, Trinidad and Tobago is generally considered to be part of the West Indies.
Trinidad was inhabited for centuries by Indigenous peoples before becoming a colony in the Spanish Empire, following the arrival of Christopher Columbus, in 1498. Spanish governor José María Chacón surrendered the island to a British fleet under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1797.[14] Trinidad and Tobago were ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens as separate states and unified in 1889.[15] Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962, and became a republic in 1976.[16][11]
Unlike most Caribbean nations and territories, which rely heavily on tourism, the economy is primarily industrial, based on large reserves of oil and gas.[17] [18] The country gets fewer hurricanes than most of the Caribbean because it is farther south.
Trinidad and Tobago is well known for its African and Indian cultures, reflected in its large and famous Carnival, Diwali, and Hosay celebrations, as well as being the birthplace of the steelpan, the limbo, and music styles such as calypso, soca, rapso, parang, chutney, and chutney soca music.
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اسم المكان
Historian E. L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad's Indigenous name was Cairi or "Land of the Humming Bird", derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, ierèttê or yerettê. However, other authors dispute this etymology with some claiming that cairi does not mean hummingbird (tukusi or tucuchi being suggested as the correct word) and some claiming that kairi, or iere, simply means island.[19] Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad" ("The Island of the Trinity"), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration.[20] Tobago's cigar-like shape, or the use of tobacco by the native people, may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco, tavaco, tobacco) and possibly some of its other Indigenous names, such as Aloubaéra (black conch) and Urupaina (big snail),[19] although the English pronunciation is /təˈbeɪɡoʊ/. Indo-Trinidadians called the island Chinidat or Chinidad which translated to the "land of sugar". The usage of the term goes back to the 19th century when recruiters in India would call the island Chinidat as a way of luring workers into indentureship on the sugar plantations.[21]
التاريخ
التاريخ الجيولوجي
The islands that make up modern-day Trinidad and Tobago lie at the southern end of the Lesser Antilles group.
Indigenous peoples
Both Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled by Indigenous people who came through South America.[11] Trinidad was first settled by pre-agricultural Archaic people at least 7,002 years ago, making it the earliest settled part of the Caribbean.[22] Banwari Trace in south-west Trinidad is the oldest attested archaeological site in the Caribbean, dating to about 5000 BC. Several waves of migration occurred over the following centuries, which can be identified by differences in their archaeological remains.[23] At the time of European contact, Trinidad was occupied by various Arawakan-speaking groups including the Nepoya and Suppoya, and Cariban-speaking groups such as the Yao, while Tobago was occupied by the Island Caribs and Galibi.
European colonization
Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Trinidad, on his third voyage to the Americas in 1498.[22][24] He also reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon, naming it Bellaforma, but did not land on the island.[11][25]
In the 1530s Antonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men, intending to subdue the Indigenous population of the island. Sedeño and his men fought the native peoples on many occasions, and subsequently built a fort. The next few decades were generally spent in warfare with the native peoples, until in 1592, the "Cacique" (native chief) Wannawanare (also known as Guanaguanare) granted the area around modern Saint Joseph to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen, and withdrew to another part of the island.[19] The settlement of San José de Oruña was later established by Antonio de Berrío on this land in 1592.[11][22] Shortly thereafter the English sailor Sir Walter Raleigh arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595 in search of the long-rumoured "El Dorado" ("City of Gold") supposedly located in South America.[22] He attacked San José, captured and interrogated Antonio de Berrío, and obtained much information from him and from the Cacique Topiawari; Raleigh then went on his way, and Spanish authority was restored.[26]
Meanwhile, there were numerous attempts by European powers to settle Tobago during the 1620–40s, with the Dutch, English and Couronians (people from the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, now part of Latvia) all attempting to colonise the island with little success.[27][28] From 1654 the Dutch and Courlanders managed to gain a more secure foothold, later joined by several hundred French settlers.[27] A plantation economy developed based on the production of sugar, indigo and rum, worked by large numbers of African slaves who soon came to vastly outnumber the European colonists.[28][27] Large numbers of forts were constructed as Tobago became a source of contention between France, Netherlands and Britain, with the island changing hands some 31 times prior to 1814, a situation exacerbated by widespread piracy.[28] The British managed to hold Tobago from 1762 to 1781, whereupon it was captured by the French, who ruled until 1793 when Britain re-captured the island.[28]
The 17th century on Trinidad passed largely without major incident, but sustained attempts by the Spaniards to control and rule over the Indigenous population was often fiercely resisted.[22] In 1687 the Catholic Catalan Capuchin friars were given responsibility for the conversions of the indigenous people of Trinidad and the Guianas.[22] They founded several missions in Trinidad, supported and richly funded by the state, which also granted encomienda right to them over the native peoples, in which the native peoples were forced to provide labour for the Spanish.[22] One such mission was Santa Rosa de Arima, established in 1689, when Indigenous people from the former encomiendas of Tacarigua and Arauca (Arouca) were relocated further west.[بحاجة لمصدر] Escalating tensions between the Spaniards and Indigenous people culminated in violence in 1689, when Indigenous people in the San Rafael encomienda rebelled and killed several priests, attacked a church, and killed the Spanish governor José de León y Echales. Among those killed in the governor's party was Juan Mazien de Sotomayor, missionary priest to the Nepuyo villages of Caura, Tacarigua and Arauca.[29] The Spanish retaliated severely, slaughtering hundreds of native peoples in an event that became known as the Arena massacre.[22] As a result, continuing Spanish slave-raiding, and the devastating impact of introduced disease to which they had no immunity, the native population was virtually wiped out by the end of the following century.[30][22]
During this period Trinidad was an island province belonging to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, together with Central America, present-day Mexico and what would later become the southwestern United States.[31] In 1757 the capital was moved from San José de Oruña to Puerto de España (modern Port of Spain) following several pirate attacks.[32] However the Spanish never made any concerted effort to colonise the islands; Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with a handful of slaves and a few thousand Indigenous people.[31] Indeed, the population in 1777 was only 1,400, and Spanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous.[بحاجة لمصدر]
Influx of French settlers
In 1777, the captain general Luis de Unzaga 'le Conciliateur', married to a French Creole, allowed free trade in Trinidad, attracting French settlers and its economy improved notably.[33] Since Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783.[34] A Cédula de Población had previously been granted in 1776 by the king, but had not shown results, and therefore the new Cédula was more generous.[11] It granted free land and tax exemption for 10 years to Roman Catholic foreign settlers who were willing to swear allegiance to the King of Spain.[11] The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares/32 acres) for each free man, woman and child and half of that for each slave that they brought with them. The Spanish sent a new governor, José María Chacón, to implement the terms of the new cédula.[34]
The Cédula was issued only a few years before the French Revolution. During that period of upheaval, French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from the neighbouring islands of Martinique, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica migrated to Trinidad, where they established an agriculture-based economy (sugar and cocoa).[31] These new immigrants established local communities in Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin,[35] Cascade, Carenage and Laventille.
As a result, Trinidad's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, and by 1797 the population of Port of Spain had increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in just five years, with a varied population of mixed race individuals, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility.[31] The total population of Trinidad was 17,718, of which 2,151 were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour", 10,009 were enslaved people and 1,082 Indigenous people.[بحاجة لمصدر] The sparse settlement and slow rate of population-increase during Spanish rule (and even later during British rule) made Trinidad one of the less populated colonies of the West Indies, with the least developed plantation infrastructure.[36]
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British rule
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The British had begun to take a keen interest in Trinidad, and in 1797 a British force led by General Sir Ralph Abercromby launched an invasion of Trinidad.[11][37] His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas. Seriously outnumbered, Chacón decided to capitulate to the British without fighting.[37] Trinidad thus became a British crown colony, with a largely French-speaking population and Spanish laws.[31] British rule was later formalised under the Treaty of Amiens (1802).[11][37] The colony's first British governor was Thomas Picton, however his heavy-handed approach to enforcing British authority, including the use of torture and arbitrary arrest, led to his being recalled.[37]
British rule led to an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. English, Scots, Irish, German and Italian families arrived, as well as some free blacks known as "Merikins" who had fought for Britain in the War of 1812 and were granted land in southern Trinidad.[38][39][40] Under British rule, new states were created and the importation of slaves increased, however by this time support for abolitionism had vastly increased and in England the slave trade was under attack.[36][41] Slavery was abolished in 1833, after which former slaves served an "apprenticeship" period. In 1837 Daaga, a West African slave trader who had been captured by Portuguese slavers and later rescued by the British navy, was conscripted into the local regiment. Daaga and a group of his compatriots mutinied at the barracks in St Joseph and set out eastward in an attempt to return to their homeland. The mutineers were ambushed by a militia unit just outside the town of Arima. The revolt was crushed at the cost of some 40 dead, and Daaga and his party were later executed at St Joseph.[42] The apprenticeship system ended on 1 August 1838 with full emancipation.[11][40] An overview of the population statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having enslaved fewer than 10 people each.[43] In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.[44]
Arrival of Indian indentured labourers
After the African slaves were emancipated many refused to continue working on the plantations, often moving out to urban areas such as Laventille and Belmont to the east of Port of Spain.[40] As a result, a severe agricultural labour shortage emerged. The British filled this gap by instituting a system of indentureship. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including Indians, Chinese, and Portuguese.[45] Of these, the East Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first ship to Trinidad on the Fatel Razack, a Muslim-owned vessel.[40][46] Indentureship of the Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, during which time more than 147,000 Indians came to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations.[11][47]
Indentureship contracts were sometimes exploitative, to such an extent that historians such as Hugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery". Despite these descriptions, it was not truly a new form of slavery, as workers were paid, contracts were finite, and the idea of an individual being another's property had been eliminated when slavery was abolished.[48] In addition, employers of indentured labour had no legal right to flog or whip their workers; the main legal sanction for the enforcement of the indenture laws was prosecution in the courts, followed by fines or (more likely) jail sentences.[49] People were contracted for a period of five years, with a daily wage as low as 25 cents in the early 20th century, and they were guaranteed return passage to India at the end of their contract period. However, coercive means were often used to retain labourers, and the indentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years from 1854 after the planters complained that they were losing their labour too early.[36][40] In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement, and by 1902, more than half of the sugar cane in Trinidad was being produced by independent cane farmers; the majority of which were Indians.[50] Despite the trying conditions experienced under the indenture system, about 90% of the Indian immigrants chose, at the end of their contracted periods of indenture, to make Trinidad their permanent home.[51] Indians entering the colony were also subject to certain crown laws which segregated them from the rest of Trinidad and Tobago's population, such as the requirement that they carry a pass with them if they left the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers" or certificate indicating completion of the indenture period.[52]
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| Trinidad and Tobago Act 1887 | |
|---|---|
| Act of Parliament | |
 | |
| Long title | An Act to enable Her Majesty by Order in Council to unite the Colonies of Trinidad and Tobago into one Colony. |
| Citation | 50 & 51 Vict. c. 44 |
| Dates | |
| Royal Assent | 16 September 1887 |
| Commencement | 16 September 1887 |
| Text of statute as originally enacted | |
Few Indians settled on Tobago however, and the descendants of African slaves continued to form the majority of the island's population. An ongoing economic slump in the middle-to-late 19th century caused widespread poverty.[53] Discontent erupted into rioting on the Roxborough plantation in 1876, in an event known as the Belmanna Uprising after a policeman who was killed.[53] The British eventually managed to restore control; however, as a result of the disturbances Tobago's Legislative Assembly voted to dissolve itself and the island became a Crown colony in 1877.[53] With the sugar industry in a state of near-collapse and the island no longer profitable, the British attached Tobago to their Trinidad colony in 1889.[11][54][55]
Early 20th century
In 1903, a protest against the introduction of new water rates in Port of Spain erupted into rioting; 18 people were shot dead, and the Red House (the government headquarters) was damaged by fire.[54] A local elected assembly with some limited powers was introduced in 1913.[54] Economically Trinidad and Tobago remained a predominantly agricultural colony; alongside sugarcane, the cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to economic earnings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In November 1919, the dockworkers went on strike over bad management practices, low wages compared to a higher cost of living.[56] Strikebreakers were brought in to keep a minimum of goods moving through the ports. On 1 December 1919, the striking dockworkers rushed the harbour and chased off the strikebreakers.[56] They then proceeded to march on the government buildings in Port of Spain. Other unions and workers, many with the same grievances, joined the dock worker's strike making it a General Strike.[56] Violence broke out and was only put down with help from the sailors of British Naval ship HMS Calcutta. The unity brought upon by the strike was the first time of cooperation between the various ethnic groups of the time.[57] Historian Brinsley Samaroo says that the 1919 strikes "seem to indicate that there was a growing class consciousness after the war and this transcended racial feelings at times."[57]
However, in the 1920s, the collapse of the sugarcane industry, concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry, resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad, and encouraged the rise of a labour movement. Conditions on the islands worsened in the 1930s with the onset of the Great Depression, with an outbreak of labour riots occurring in 1937 which resulted in several deaths.[58] The labour movement aimed to unite the urban working class and agricultural labour class; the key figures being Arthur Cipriani, who led the Trinidad Labour Party (TLP), Tubal Uriah "Buzz" Butler of the British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party, and Adrian Cola Rienzi, who led the Trinidad Citizens League (TCL), Oilfields Workers' Trade Union, and All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Union.[58] As the movement developed calls for greater autonomy from British colonial rule became widespread; this effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British-educated Trinidadian elite, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy class.
Petroleum had been discovered in 1857, but became economically significant only in the 1930s and afterwards as a result of the collapse of sugarcane and cocoa, and increasing industrialization.[59][60][61] By the 1950s petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population. The collapse of Trinidad's major agricultural commodities, followed by the Depression, and the rise of the oil economy, led to major changes in the country's social structure.
The presence of American military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto in Trinidad during World War II had a profound effect on society. The Americans vastly improved the infrastructure on Trinidad and provided many locals with well-paying jobs; however, the social effects of having so many young soldiers stationed on the island, as well as their often unconcealed racial prejudice, caused resentment.[54] The Americans left in 1961.[62]
In the post-war period the British began a process of decolonisation across the British Empire. In 1945 universal suffrage was introduced to Trinidad and Tobago.[11][54] Political parties emerged on the island, however these were largely divided along racial lines: Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians primarily supported the People's National Movement (PNM), formed in 1956 by Eric Williams, with Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians mostly supporting the People's Democratic Party (PDP), formed in 1953 by Bhadase Sagan Maraj,[63] which later merged into the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) in 1957.[64] Britain's Caribbean colonies formed the West Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence, however the Federation dissolved after Jamaica withdrew following a membership referendum in 1961. The government of Trinidad and Tobago subsequently chose to seek independence from the United Kingdom on its own.[65]
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Contemporary era
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Trinidad and Tobago gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 31 August 1962.[11][61] However, Elizabeth II remained head of state, represented locally by Governor-General Solomon Hochoy, until the passage of the 1976 Republican Constitution.[66]
Eric Williams of the People's National Movement became the first Prime Minister, serving in that capacity uninterrupted until 1981.[11] The dominant figure in the opposition in the early independence years was Opposition Leader Rudranath Capildeo of the Democratic Labour Party. The first Speaker of the House of Representatives was Clytus Arnold Thomasos and the first President of the Senate was J. Hamilton Maurice. The 1960s saw the rise of a Black Power movement, inspired in part by the civil rights movement in the United States. Protests and strikes became common, with events coming to head in April 1970 when police shot dead a protester named Basil Davis.[64] Fearing a breakdown of law and order, Prime Minister Williams declared a state of emergency and ordered that many of the Black Power leaders be arrested. Some army leaders who were sympathetic to the Black Power movement, notably Raffique Shah and Rex Lassalle, attempted to mutiny; however, this was quashed by the Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard.[64] Williams and the PNM retained power, largely due to divisions in the opposition.[64]
In 1963 Tobago was struck by Hurricane Flora, which killed 30 people and resulted in enormous destruction across the island.[67] Partly as a result of this, tourism came to replace agriculture as the island's primary source of income in the subsequent decades.[67] On 1 May 1968, Trinidad and Tobago joined the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which provided a continued economic, rather than political, linkage between the former British West Indies English-speaking countries after the West Indies Federation failed. On 1 August 1973, the country became a founding member state of CARIFTA's successor, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), which is a political and economic union between several Caribbean countries and territories.
Between the years 1972 and 1983, the country profited greatly from the rising price of oil and the discovery of vast new oil deposits in its territorial waters, resulting in an economic boom that substantially increased living standards.[11][64] In 1976 the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, though it retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as its final appellate court.[11] The position of governor-general was replaced with that of President; Ellis Clarke was the first to hold this largely ceremonial role.[68] Tobago was granted limited self-rule with the creation of the Tobago House of Assembly in 1980.[53]
Williams died in 1981, being replaced by George Chambers who led the country until 1986. By this time a fall in the price of oil had resulted in a recession, causing rising inflation and unemployment.[69] The main opposition parties united under the banner of National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR) and won the 1986 Trinidad and Tobago general election, with NAR leader A. N. R. Robinson becoming the new Prime Minister.[70][64] Robinson was unable to hold together the fragile NAR coalition, and his economic reforms, such as the implementation of an International Monetary Fund Structural Adjustment Program and devaluation of currency led to social unrest.[11] In 1990, 114 members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen, led by Yasin Abu Bakr (formerly known as Lennox Phillip) stormed the Red House (the seat of Parliament), and Trinidad and Tobago Television, the only television station in the country at the time, holding Robinson and country's government hostage for six days before surrendering.[71] The coup leaders were promised amnesty, but upon their surrender they were arrested, ultimately being released after protracted legal wrangling.[45]
The PNM under Patrick Manning returned to power following the 1991 Trinidad and Tobago general election.[11] Hoping to capitalise on an improvement in the economy, Manning called an early election in 1995, however, this resulted in a hung parliament. Two NAR representatives backed the opposition United National Congress (UNC), which had split off from the NAR in 1989, and they thus took power under Basdeo Panday, who became the country's first Indo-Trinidadian Prime Minister.[11][69][72] After a period of political confusion caused by a series of inconclusive election results, Patrick Manning returned to power in 2001, retaining that position until 2010.[11]
In 2003 the country entered a second oil boom, and petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have attempted to diversify the island's economy.[73] A partnership resulted in Manning's defeat by the newly formed People's Partnership coalition in 2010, with Kamla Persad-Bissessar becoming the country's first female prime minister.[74][75][76] However, the PP were defeated in 2015 by the PNM under Keith Rowley.[77][78] In August 2020, the governing People's National Movement won general election, earning the incumbent Prime Minister Keith Rowley a second term in office.[79]
الجغرافيا
الموقع
تقع ترينداد وتوباغو أمام الساحل الشمالي الشرقي لجمهورية فنزويلا وأمام مصب نهر أورينكو أهم أنهار فنزويلا ، وعلى حافة اللقاء المحيطي بين البحر الكاريبي والمحيط الأطلنطي ، وتبعد عن ساحل فنزويلا بحوالي أحد عشر كيلومترأً ، وتبعد جزيرة توباغو عن جزيرة ترينداد بحوالي 32 كيلو متراً نحو الشمال .
الارض
أرض ترينداد سهلية في جملتها غير أنها ترتفع في بعض المناطق ، حيث توجد ثلاثة تلال تمثل مناطق تقسيم المياه بين أنهارها القصيرة الثلاثة ، وتربة الجزيرة بركانية خصبة ، اما جزيرة توباغو فتتكون من قمة جبلية بركانية في الشمال أمامها رصيف قاري مرجاني التكوين في الجنوب .
الجيولوجيا
The Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands (the East–West Corridor and Caroni Plain) consist of younger shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern flanks. The Naparima Plain and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift.[بحاجة لمصدر]
The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the third anticlinal uplift. The rocks consist of sandstones, shales, siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this area.[بحاجة لمصدر]
One of the natural wonders of the island is the Pitch lake lake, a natural pitch lake on the island of Trinidad. Which is the largest naturally occurring deposit of asphalt on Earth.
المناخ
تقع ترينداد قرب دائرة العرض العاشرة إلى الشمال من الدائرة الاستوائية لهذا تتبع النمط الاستوائي المعدل بسبب موقعها ، والوسط المائي المحيط بها فالمعدلات الحرارية عالية في معظم شهور السنة إلا أنها محتملة ، والأمطار غزيرة ولقد انعكس هذا على الغطاء النباتي ، فالغابات الاستوائية الكثيفة تغطي مساحات واسعة على أرض الجزيرتين مما أضفي عليها صفة جمالية .
Trinidad and Tobago has a maritime tropical climate.[16][11] There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first five months of the year, and the rainy season in the remaining seven of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds. Unlike many Caribbean islands Trinidad and Tobago lies outside the main hurricane alleys; nevertheless, the island of Tobago was struck by Hurricane Flora on 30 September 1963. In the Northern Range of Trinidad, the climate is often cooler than that of the sweltering heat of the plains below, due to constant cloud and mist cover, and heavy rains in the mountains.
Record temperatures for Trinidad and Tobago are 39 °C (102 °F)[80] for the high in Port of Spain, and a low of 12 °C (54 °F).[81]
Biodiversity
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Because the islands of Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and in ancient times were physically connected to the South American mainland, their biological diversity is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much more in common with that of Venezuela.[82] The main ecosystems are: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds); forest; freshwater (rivers and streams); karst; man-made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest); and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, and it has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country's contribution to biodiversity conservation. These reports formally acknowledged the importance of biodiversity to the well-being of the country's people through provision of ecosystem services.[83]
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Information about vertebrates is rather comprehensive, with 472 bird species (2 endemics), about 100 mammals, about 90 reptiles (a few endemics), about 30 amphibians (including several endemics), 50 freshwater fish and at least 950 marine fish.[84] Notable mammal species include the ocelot, West Indian manatee, collared peccary (known as the quenk locally), red-rumped agouti, lappe, red brocket deer, Neotropical otter, weeper capuchin and red howler monkey; there are also some 70 species of bat, including the vampire bat and fringe-lipped bat.[11][85] The larger reptiles present include 5 species of marine turtles known to nest on the islands' beaches, the green anaconda, the Boa constrictor and the spectacled caiman. There are at least 47 species of snakes, including only four dangerous venomous species (only in Trinidad and not in Tobago), lizards such as the green iguana, the Tupinambis cryptus and a few species of fresh water turtles and land tortoises.[11][86] are present. Of the amphibians, the golden tree frog and Trinidad poison frog are found in the highest peaks of Trinidad's Northern Range and nearby on Venezuela's Paria Peninsula.[86][87] Marine life is abundant, with several species of sea urchin, coral, lobster, sea anemone, starfish, manta ray, dolphin, porpoise and whale shark present in the islands' waters.[88] The introduced Pterois is viewed as a pest, as it eats many native species of fish and has no natural predators; efforts are currently underway to cull the numbers of this species.[88] The country contains five terrestrial ecoregions: Trinidad and Tobago moist forests, Lesser Antillean dry forests, Trinidad and Tobago dry forests, Windward Islands xeric scrub, and Trinidad mangroves.[89]
Trinidad and Tobago is noted particularly for its large number of bird species, and is a popular destination for bird watchers. Notable species include the scarlet ibis, cocrico, egret, shiny cowbird, bananaquit, oilbird and various species of honeycreeper, trogon, toucan, parrot, tanager, woodpecker, antbird, kites, hawks, boobies, pelicans and vultures; there are also 17 species of hummingbird, including the tufted coquette which is the world's third smallest.[90]
Information about invertebrates is dispersed and very incomplete. About 650 butterflies,[84] at least 672 beetles (from Tobago alone)[91] and 40 corals[84] have been recorded.[84] Other notable invertebrates include the cockroach, leaf-cutter ant and numerous species of mosquitoes, termites, spiders and tarantulas.
Although the list is far from complete, 1,647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded.[92][93][94] The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[95] A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species.[96]
Information about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded.[84] The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher.
Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded.[84] Despite significant felling, forests still cover about 40% of the country, and there are about 350 different species of tree.[82] A notable tree is the manchineel which is extremely poisonous to humans, and even just touching its sap can cause severe blistering of the skin; the tree is often covered with warning signs. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.62/10, ranking it 69th globally out of 172 countries.[97]
Threats to the country's biodiversity include over-hunting and poaching (see Hunting#Trinidad and Tobago), habitat loss and fragmentation (particularly due to forest fires and land clearance for quarrying, agriculture, squatting, housing and industrial development and road construction), water pollution, and introduction of invasive species and pathogens.
Government and politics
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Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two-party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the Westminster System.[16]
The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the president, currently Christine Kangaloo.[16] This largely ceremonial role replaced that of the governor-general (representing the monarch of Trinidad and Tobago) upon Trinidad and Tobago's becoming a republic in 1976.[11] The head of government is the prime minister, currently Keith Rowley.[16] The president is elected by an Electoral college consisting of the full membership of both houses of Parliament.
Following a general election, which takes place every five years, the president appoints as prime minister the person who has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the election (except in the case of the 2001 General Elections).[11]
Since 1980 Tobago has also had its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the unicameral Tobago House of Assembly.[16][11][98]
Parliament consists of the Senate (31 seats) and the House of Representatives (41 seats, plus the Speaker).[16][99] The members of the Senate are appointed by the president; 16 government senators are appointed on the advice of the prime minister, six opposition senators are appointed on the advice of the leader of the opposition, currently Kamla Persad-Bissessar, and nine independent senators are appointed by the president to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post" system.
التقسيمات الإدارية
Trinidad is split into 14 regions and municipalities, consisting of nine regions and five municipalities, which have a limited level of autonomy.[16][11] The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are held every three years.[بحاجة لمصدر] Tobago is administered by the Tobago House of Assembly. The country was formerly divided into counties.
Political culture
The two main national parties are the People's National Movement (PNM) and the United National Congress (UNC). They both are left of centre parties and support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines rather than ideology, with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority of Afro-Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo-Trinidadian support. Several smaller parties also exist. As of the August 2020 General Elections, there were 19 registered political parties. These include, the Progressive Empowerment Party, Trinidad Humanity Campaign, New National Vision, Movement for Social Justice, Congress of the People, Movement for National Development, Progressive Democratic Patriots, National Coalition for Transformation, Progressive Party, Independent Liberal Party, Democratic Party of Trinidad and Tobago, National Organisation of We the People, Unrepresented Peoples Party, Trinidad and Tobago Democratic Front, The National Party, One Tobago Voice, and Unity of the Peoples.[100]
Military
The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (TTDF) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.[16] It consists of the Regiment, the Coast Guard, the Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago's independence from the United Kingdom, the TTDF is one of the largest military forces in the Anglophone Caribbean.[بحاجة لمصدر]
Its mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfilment of its national and international objectives". The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as the Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt, and international missions, such as the United Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996.
In 2019, Trinidad and Tobago signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[101]
Trinidad and Tobago is the 87th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.[102]
Foreign relations
Trinidad and Tobago maintains close relations with its Caribbean neighbours and major North American and European trading partners. As the most industrialised and second-largest country in the Anglophone Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago has taken a leading role in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and strongly supports CARICOM economic integration efforts. It also is active in the Summit of the Americas process and supports the establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, lobbying other nations for seating the Secretariat in Port of Spain.[بحاجة لمصدر]
As a member of CARICOM, Trinidad and Tobago strongly backed efforts by the United States to bring political stability to Haiti, contributing personnel to the Multinational Force in 1994. After its 1962 independence from the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago joined the United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations. In 1967 it became the first Commonwealth country to join the Organization of American States (OAS).[103] In 1995 Trinidad played host to the inaugural meeting of the Association of Caribbean States and has become the seat of this 35-member grouping, which seeks to further economic progress and integration among its states. In international forums, Trinidad and Tobago has defined itself as having an independent voting record, but often supports US and EU positions.[بحاجة لمصدر]
Law enforcement and crime
Trinidad and Tobago has in recent decades suffered from a relatively high crime rate;[104][105] there are currently roughly 500 murders per year.[106][64] The country is a noted transshipment centre for the trafficking of illegal drugs from South America to the rest of the Caribbean and beyond to North America.[107] Some estimates put the size of the "hidden economy" as high as 20–30% of measured GDP.[108]
Terrorism
Though there have been no terrorism-related incidents in the country since the Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt in 1990, Trinidad and Tobago remains a potential target and it is estimated that roughly 100 citizens of the country have traveled to the Middle East to fight for the Islamic State.[104][105] In 2017, the government adopted a counter-terrorism and extremism strategy.[105] In 2018, a terror threat at the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival was thwarted by law enforcement.[109]
Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service
The country's prison administration is the Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service (TTPS), it is under the control of the Commissioner of Prisons (Ag.) Dennis Pulchan, located in Port-of-Spain.[110] The prison population rate is 292 people per 100,000. The total prison population, including pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners, is 3,999 prisoners. The population rate of pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners is 174 per 100,000 of the national population (59.7% of the prison population). In 2018, the female prison population rate is 8.5 per 100,000 of the national population (2.9% of the prison population). Prisoners that are minors makes up 1.9% of the prison population and foreigners prisoners make 0.8% of the prison population.
The occupancy level of Trinidad and Tobago's prison system is at 81.8% capacity as of 2019.[110] Trinidad and Tobago has nine prison establishments; Golden Grove Prison, Maximum Security Prison, Port of Spain Prison, Eastern Correctional Rehabilitation Centre, Remand Prison, Tobago Convict Prison, Carrera Convict Island Prison, Women's Prison and Youth Training and Rehabilitation Centre.[111] Trinidad and Tobago also use labour yards as prisons, or means of punishment.[112]
السكان
يتكون سكان ترينداد من عدة عناصر ، فالأفريقيون يشكلون حوالي نصف سكان البلاد (43% ) ولقد وصلت العناصر الأفريقية إلى ترينداد أيام تجارة الرقيق ، وسخرت هذه العناصر في زراعة حاصلات المناطق الحارة ، ويشكل الهنود الآسيويون ، والصنيون نسبة عالية بين سكان ترينداد تصل (41%) وجاءوا كعمال سخره جلبتهم بريطانية لاستغلالهم في الزراعة بعد إلغاء تجارة الرقيق ، والأقليات الباقية من سكان ترينداد تتكون من خليط من البريطانيون ، والفرنسيون ، والبرتغاليون ، والأسبان ، ولقد وصلت الجزر هجرات عربية من لبنان وسوريا ويشكلون 11% ويمثل المسيحيون 53،4% ، والهندوس 34،6% ، والمسلمون 12% من جملة السكان ، والانجليزية لغة البلاد الرسمية .
الاقتصاد
Trinidad and Tobago is the most developed nation and one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70 high-income countries in the world.[بحاجة لمصدر] Its gross national income per capita of US$20,070[113] (2014 gross national income at Atlas Method) is one of the highest in the Caribbean.[114] In November 2011, the OECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list of developing countries.[115] Trinidad's economy is strongly influenced by the petroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, particularly on Tobago, although proportionately it is much less important than in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus and cocoa. It also supplies manufactured goods, notably food, beverages, and cement, to the Caribbean region.
استطاعت ترينيداد وتوباگو أن تكسب سمعة ممتازة لجذب الاستثمارات التجارية الدولية. كما ساهم الغاز الطبيعي في الأعوام الأربعة الأخيرة من إنعاش اقصاد البلاد. أما بالنسبة للسياحة فهي في تطور مستمر بالرغم من أنها لم تصل إلى مستويات السياحة في بقية جزر الكاريبي. يشير عام 2002 إلى النمو الكبير في القطاع النفطي لترينيداد وتوباغو.
Oil and gas
Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources.[11] Oil and gas account for about 40% of GDP and 80% of exports, but only 5% of employment.[16] Recent growth has been fuelled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminium, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning.
The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus.[116] The expansion of Atlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single-sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago. The nation is an exporter of LNG and supplied a total of 13.4 billion m3 in 2017. The largest markets for Trinidad and Tobago's LNG exports are Chile and the United States.[117]
Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil-based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2017, natural gas production totalled 18.5 billion m3, a decrease of 0.4% from 2016 with 18.6 billion m3 of production.[117] Oil production has decreased over the past decade from 7.1 million metric tonnes per year in 2007 to 4.4 million metric tonnes per year in 2017.[118] In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG's fourth production module or "train" for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production. Train four has increased Atlantic LNG's overall output capacity by almost 50% and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons/year of LNG.[بحاجة لمصدر]
Tourism
Trinidad and Tobago is far less dependent on tourism than many other Caribbean countries and territories, with the bulk of tourist activity occurring on Tobago.[11] The government has made efforts to boost this sector in recent years.[11]
Some of the attractions of the island are its street food culture and cultural events, and Aripita Avenue in Port of Spain is one noted place for this.[119]
Agriculture
Historically agricultural production including sugar and coffee dominated the economy, with sugar cane earning the most money, and providing the most employment. Some of the sugar produced was eaten in Trinidad but most of it was sold to United Kingdom, Canada, and United States. Cocoa was the second most valuable crop, and covers more area than sugar cane. Sugar production ceased around 2010 or so due to deflated prices of the time and high production costs.
Most farmers grow cocoa to sell to other countries that cannot grow it themselves. Trinidad was once the second biggest producer of cocoa after Ecuador, but this would not last long. As countries in West Africa and South America began growing cocoa at a lower price, Trinidad lost many of its customers.[120]
Agriculture has been in steep decline since the 20th century and now forms just 0.4% of the country's GDP and employs 3.1% of the workforce.[16][11] Various fruits and vegetables are grown, such as cucumbers, eggplant, cassava, pumpkin, dasheen (taro) and coconut, and fishing is still also commonly practised.[16]
Economic diversification
Trinidad and Tobago, in an effort to undergo economic transformation through diversification,[16] formed InvesTT in 2012 to serve as the country's sole investment promotion agency. This agency is aligned to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and is to be the key agent in growing the country's non-oil and gas sectors significantly and sustainably.[121]
Food and beverage industry
Trinidad and Tobago is home to the largest brewery company in CARICOM, the Carib Brewery. It also has a number of food production facilities including a Nestle plant. Because the island has less land and a higher income than average there is a tendency to import food, nevertheless there is local production of many products including milk, chocolate, coconuts, and alcoholic beverages among others.[122] In 2022, the output of the Food, Beverage, and Tobacco industry was almost 8 billion Trinidian dollars.[123]
An example of a restaurant chain in Trinidad and Tobago is Royal Castle.[124]
See also Category:Food and drink companies of Trinidad and Tobago
Communications infrastructure
Trinidad and Tobago has a well developed communications sector. The telecommunications and broadcasting sectors generated an estimated TT$5.63 billion (US$0.88 billion) in 2014, which as a percentage of GDP equates to 3.1 percent. This represented a 1.9 percent increase in total revenues generated by this industry compared to last year. Of total telecommunications and broadcasting revenues, mobile voice services accounted for the majority of revenues with TT$2.20 billion (39.2 percent). This was followed by internet services which contributed TT$1.18 billion or 21.1 percent. The next highest revenue earners for the industry were fixed voice services and paid television services whose contributions totalled TT$0.76 billion and TT$0.70 billion respectively (13.4 percent and 12.4 percent). International voice services was next in line, generating TT$0.27 billion (4.7 percent) in revenues. Free-to Air radio and television services contributed TT$0.18 billion and TT$0.13 billion respectively (3.2 percent and 2.4 percent). Finally, other contributors included "other revenues" and "leased line services" with earnings of TT$0.16 billion and TT$0.05 billion respectively, with 2.8 percent and 0.9 percent.[125]
There are several providers for each segment of the telecommunications market. Fixed Lines Telephone service is provided by Digicel, TSTT (operating as bmobile) and Cable & Wireless Communications operating as FLOW; cellular service is provided by TSTT (operating as bmobile) and Digicel whilst internet service is provided by TSTT, FLOW, Digicel, Green Dot and Lisa Communications.
Creative industries
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago has recognised the creative industries as a pathway to economic growth and development. It is one of the newest, most dynamic sectors where creativity, knowledge and intangibles serve as the basic productive resource. In 2015, the Trinidad and Tobago Creative Industries Company Limited (CreativeTT) was established as a state agency under the Ministry of Trade and Industry with a mandate to stimulate and facilitate the business development and export activities of the Creative Industries in Trinidad and Tobago to generate national wealth, and, as such, the company is responsible for the strategic and business development of the three niche areas and sub sectors currently under its purview – Music, Film and Fashion. MusicTT, FilmTT and FashionTT are the subsidiaries established to fulfil this mandate.
Transport
The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a dense network of highways and roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough and San Fernando, and international airports on both islands.[11] The Uriah Butler Highway, Churchill Roosevelt Highway and the Sir Solomon Hochoy Highway links the island of Trinidad together, whereas the Claude Noel Highway is the only major highway in Tobago. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis.[126]
The island of Trinidad is served by Piarco International Airport located in Piarco, which opened on 8 January 1931.[127] Sitting at an elevation of 17.4 metres (57 ft) above sea level, it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal. The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the fifth Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of[128] 14-second-level aircraft gates with jetways for international flights, two ground-level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions.
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In 2008, the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million. It is the seventh busiest airport in the Caribbean and the third busiest in the English-speaking Caribbean, after Sangster International Airport and Lynden Pindling International Airport.[بحاجة لمصدر] Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US$50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airline Air Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6–12-month transition period to follow.[129]
The Island of Tobago is served by the A.N.R. Robinson International Airport in Crown Point.[11] This airport has regular services to North America and Europe. There are regular flights between the two islands, with fares being heavily subsidised by the Government.
Trinidad was formerly home to a railway network, however this was closed down in 1968.[130] There have been talks to build a new railway on the islands, though nothing yet has come of this.[131]
Energy policy and climate change
Trinidad and Tobago is the region's leading exporter of oil and gas but imports of fossil fuels provided over 90% of the energy consumed by its CARICOM neighbours in 2008. This vulnerability led CARICOM to develop an Energy Policy which was approved in 2013. This policy is accompanied by the CARICOM Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (C-SERMS). Under the policy, renewable energy sources are to contribute 20% of the total electricity generation mix in member states by 2017, 28% by 2022 and 47% by 2027.[132]
In 2014 Trinidad and Tobago was the third country in the world which emitted the most CO2 per capita after Qatar and Curacao according to the World Bank.[133] On average, each inhabitant produced 34.2 metric tons of CO2 in the atmosphere. In comparison, the world average was 5.0 tons per capita the same year. Over recent years CO2 emissions have declined, so that in 2021 at 21.01 tonnes per capita,[134] Trinidad and Tobago ranked fourth, after the tiny countries smaller than half a million, such as Curacao, are excluded, and is the only non-Middle East country in the remaining worst seven CO2 emitters on a per capita basis.[135]
In terms of emissions intensity of economy (defined as CO2 emissions per unit of GDP), Trinidad and Tobago ranked third globally.[134] Its emissions-source profile is unique amongst the worst CO2 intensity emitters as the so-called "other sectors", which includes: industrial process emissions, agricultural soils and waste, accounts for more than fifty per cent of fossil CO2 emissions, rather than the power industry, other industrial combustion, transport and buildings sectors.[135]
The Caribbean Industrial Research Institute in Trinidad and Tobago facilitates climate change research and provides industrial support for R&D related to food security. It also carries out equipment testing and calibration for major industries.[132]
النشاط البشري
الزراعة الحرفة الأساسية لسكان ترينداد وتوباغو ، وتتركز بها زراعة الحاصلات النقدية مثل قصب السكر ، والكاكاو ، وجوز الهند ، ويزرع البن والموز ، وتستورد الحبوب الغذائية ، وظهر بها النفط في سنة 1398 هـ1978 م ، ونهضت بها صناعات مثل المخصيات ، والكيميائيات ، والإطارات ، والصناعات الجليدية .
Culture
Trinidad and Tobago has a diverse culture with African, Indian, Creole, European, Chinese, Indigenous, Latino-Hispanic, and Arab influences, reflecting the various communities who have migrated to the islands over the centuries.
Steelpan music, the limbo dance competition, and carnival with its elaborate costumes, and Caribbean street foods are some of the famous cultures of the islands.
Art and design
Trinidadian designer Peter Minshall is renowned not only for his Carnival costumes but also for his role in opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olympics, the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the 1996 Summer Olympics, and the 2002 Winter Olympics, for which he won an Emmy Award.[136]
Cuisine
Diversity is also reflected the culinary culture, which bears witness to a variety of influences, including African, Indian, Chinese, Creole, Amerindian, and colonial traditions.[137] Street food is popular, and some examples are doubles, aloo pie, saheena, phoulourie, kachorie, baiganee, pies, accra, bake and shark, barbecue, souse, chow, black pudding, arepas, gyros, and others.[138] Some main and/or side dishes are curry crab with dumpling, pelau, oil down, pastelles, buljol, cou-cou, callaloo, ground provisions, fried plantain, red beans and rice, fried chicken, stew chicken, barbecue chicken, fried fish, macaroni pie,[139] fry bake, dhal bhat (dhal and rice), kurhee, dhalpuri, paratha, sada roti, dosti roti, curry chicken, curry goat, geera pork, curry fish, curry shrimp, curry channa and aloo, curry baigan, bhajee, mango tarkari, curry chataigne, bodi, seim, pumpkin (kohra), baigan chokha, damadol (tomatoes) chokha, aloo choka, kitchrie, tarkaris, pepper shrimp, fried rice, chow mein, and many others.[138] Some noted soups are chicken, cow heel, fish broth, and corn soup, and some desserts and sweets include cassava pone, sweet bread, coconut drops, currants roll, sponge cake, black cake, kurma, gulab jamun, jalebi, laddoo, halwa, mohanbhog (parsad), pera, gujiya, maleeda, laapsi, sweet rice, barfi, rasgulla, sawine, sugar cake, toolum, and coconut, mango, or soursop ice cream.[138][140]
Of these one of the most famous is doubles, which is two bara (fried flatbread) with channa (curried chickpeas) with various condiments like chutneys, kuchela, and pepper sauce. This is the most popular street food in the country.[141] Doubles are popular late-night snack or breakfast, are thought to have been invented in 1936 on Trinidad.[142]
A food like aloo pie, another popular street food reflects an interesting history that aloo is the Hindi word for potato. Aloo pie is a torpedo shape of spicy mashed potatoes that is baked, then sliced open and filled with channa (curry chickpeas), tamarind, and other toppings.[141]
Types of food that are popular are street food, celebration foods, deserts, and condiments like various chutneys.[143][140] Fresh coconut water, rum, Mauby, are some examples.[143][144] Having a fresh coconut water with "jelly", bitters, various mixed drinks, sorrel, are among noted beverages of the islands.[144]
Trinidadian gyros and shawarma are another noted food item, which was popularized by Lebanese and Syrian migrants to the islands.[145]
Dance
The limbo dance originated in Trinidad as an event that took place at wakes in Trinidad. The limbo has African roots. It was popularized in the 1950s by dance pioneer Julia Edwards[146] (known as the "First Lady of Limbo") and her company which appeared in several films.[147] Bélé, Bongo, and wining are also dance forms with African roots.[148]
Jazz, ballroom, ballet, modern, and salsa dancing are also popular.[148]
Indian dance forms are also prevalent in Trinidad and Tobago.[149] Kathak, Odissi, and Bharatanatyam are the most popular Indian classical dance forms in Trinidad and Tobago.[150] Indian folk dances, such as launda ke naach, as well as Bollywood dances and chutney dancing are also popular.[150]
Festivals and holidays
The island is particularly renowned for its annual Carnival celebrations.[11] Festivals rooted in various religions and cultures practiced on the islands are also popular. Hindu festivals include Diwali, Phagwah (Holi), Nauratri, Vijayadashami, Maha Shivratri, Krishna Janmashtami, Ram Naumi, Hanuman Jayanti, Ganesh Utsav, Saraswati Jayanti, Kartik Nahan, Makar Sankranti, Pitru Paksha, Raksha Bandhan, Mesha Sankranti, Guru Purnima, Tulasi Vivaha, Vivaha Panchami, Kalbhairo Jayanti, Datta Jayanti, and Gita Jayanti.[153] Christian holidays and observances include Spiritual Baptist/Shouter Liberation Day, Lent, Palm Sunday, Easter, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Ash Wednesday, Holy Week, Easter Monday, Octave of Easter, Pentecost, Whit Monday, Old Year's Day, New Year's Day, Christmas, Boxing Day, Epiphany, Assumption of Mary, Feast of Corpus Christi, All Souls' Day, All Saints' Day.[154] Muslim holidays include Hosay (Ashura), Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Day of Arafah, Mawlid, Ramadan, Chaand Raat, and Shab-e-barat. People of Indian descent celebrate Indian Arrival Day to commemorate the arrival of their indentured Indian ancestors beginning in 1845 and people of African descent celebrate Emancipation Day to commemorate the day their African ancestors were emancipated from slavery. Trinidad and Tobago was the first country in the world to recognize both of these holiday and make them public holidays. The Indigenous Amerindians have their Santa Rosa Indigenous Festival and the Chinese Trinidadians and Tobagonians have the Chinese New Year, although they are not public national holidays.[155] National holidays such as Independence Day, Republic Day and Labour Day are celebrated as well.
Literature
Trinidad and Tobago claims two Nobel Prize-winning authors, V. S. Naipaul and St Lucian-born Derek Walcott (who also founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop). Other notable writers include Michael Anthony, Neil Bissoondath, Vahni Capildeo, Merle Hodge, C. L. R. James, Earl Lovelace, Rabindranath Maharaj, Kenneth Ramchand and Samuel Selvon.
Music
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Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of calypso music and the steelpan.[157][158][159] Trinidad is also the birthplace of soca music, chutney music, chutney-soca, parang, rapso, pichakaree and chutney parang.[160][161][162]
Media and Theatre
Geoffrey Holder (brother of Boscoe Holder) and Heather Headley are two Trinidad-born artists who have won Tony Awards for theatre. Holder also has a distinguished film career, and Headley has won a Grammy Award as well.
Indian theatre is also popular throughout Trinidad and Tobago. Nautankis and dramas such as Raja Harishchandra, Raja Nal, Raja Rasalu, Sarwaneer (Sharwan Kumar), Indra Sabha, Bhakt Prahalad, Lorikayan, Gopichand, and Alha-Khand were brought by Indians to Trinidad and Tobago, however they had largely began to die out, till preservation began by Indian cultural groups.[163] Ramleela, the drama about the life of the Hindu deity Rama, is popular during the time between Sharad Navaratri and Vijaydashmi, and Ras leela (Krishna leela), the drama about the life of the Hindu deity Krishna, is popular around the time of Krishna Janmashtami.[164][165][166]
Trinidad and Tobago is also smallest country to have two Miss Universe titleholders and the first black woman ever to win: Janelle Commissiong in 1977, followed by Wendy Fitzwilliam in 1998; the country has also had one Miss World titleholder, Giselle LaRonde who won in 1986.
Museums & Gardens
Trinidad and Tobago has a variety of museums, covering everything from classic cars, art, history, to zoology.[167]
Sports
Olympic sports
Hasely Crawford won the first Olympic gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the men's 100-metre dash in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Nine different athletes from Trinidad and Tobago have won twelve medals at the Olympics, beginning with a silver medal in weightlifting, won by Rodney Wilkes in 1948.[168] Most recently, a gold medal was won by Keshorn Walcott in the men's javelin throw in 2012. Ato Boldon has won the most Olympic and World Championship medals for Trinidad and Tobago in athletics, with eight in total – four from the Olympics and four from the World Championships. Boldon won the 1997 200-metre dash World Championship in Athens, and was the sole world champion Trinidad and Tobago had produced until Jehue Gordon in Moscow 2013. Swimmer George Bovell III won a bronze medal in the men's 200 metres Individual Medley in 2004. At the 2017 World Championship in London, the Men's 4x400 relay team captured the title, thus the country now celebrates three world championships titles. The team consisted of Jarrin Solomon, Jareem Richards, Machel Cedenio and Lalonde Gordon with Renny Quow who ran in the heats.
Also in 2012, Lalonde Gordon competed in the London Summer Olympics where he won a bronze medal in the 400-metre dash, being surpassed by Luguelin Santos of the Dominican Republic and Kirani James of Grenada. Keshorn Walcott (as stated above) came first in javelin and earned a gold medal, making him the second Trinidadian in the country's history to receive one. This also makes him the first Western athlete in 40 years to receive a gold medal in the javelin sport, and the first athlete from Trinidad and Tobago to win a gold medal in a field event in the Olympics.[169] Sprinter Richard Thompson is also from Trinidad and Tobago. He came second place to Usain Bolt in the Beijing Olympics in the 100-metre dash with a time of 9.89s.
In 2018, The Court of Arbitration for Sport made its final decision on the failed doping sample from the Jamaican team in the 4 x 100 relay in the 2008 Olympic Games. The team from Trinidad and Tobago will be awarded the gold medal, because of the second rank during the relay run.[170]
In 2023, Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2023 Commonwealth Youth Games.
In 2024, Trinidadian sprinter Leah Bertrand competed in the 2024 Paris Olympics for the first time.[171][172] Overall, TT sent about 17 athletes to the 2024 games, including noted athletes Michelle-Lee Ahye (springer), Jereem Richards (200m and 400m), Dylan Carter (swimming), Keshorn Walcott (javelin), Nicholas Paul (cyclist). Keshorn Walcott is previous Olympic medal winner, have won Gold and bronze.[173]
(see alsoTrinidad and Tobago at the 2024 Summer Olympics)
Cricket
Cricket is a popular sport of Trinidad and Tobago, often deemed the national sport, and there is intense inter-island rivalry with its Caribbean neighbours. Trinidad and Tobago is represented at Test cricket, One Day International as well as Twenty20 cricket level as a member of the West Indies team. The national team plays at the first-class level in regional competitions such as the Regional Four Day Competition and Regional Super50. Meanwhile, the Trinbago Knight Riders play in the Caribbean Premier League.[174]
The Queen's Park Oval located in Port of Spain is the largest cricket ground in the West Indies, having hosted 60 Test matches as of January 2018. Trinidad and Tobago along with other islands from the Caribbean co-hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup.
Brian Lara, world record holder for the most runs scored both in a Test and in a First Class innings amongst other records, was born in the small town of Santa Cruz and is often referred to as the Prince of Port of Spain or simply the Prince. This legendary West Indian batsman is widely regarded.[175]
Football
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Association football is also a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago. The men's national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup for the first time by beating Bahrain in Manama on 16 November 2005, making them the second least populated country ever to qualify, after Iceland.
The team, coached by Dutchman Leo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian-born captain Dwight Yorke, drew their first group game – against Sweden in Dortmund, 0–0, but lost the second game to England on late goals, 0–2. They were eliminated after losing 2–0 to Paraguay in the last game of the Group stage.
Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification, Trinidad and Tobago came close in a controversial qualification campaign for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game against Haiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions.[176] Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in 1990, needing only a draw at home against the United States but losing 1–0.[177]
They play their home matches at the Hasely Crawford Stadium. Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and hosted the 2010 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup.
The TT Pro League is the country's primary football competition and is the top level of the Trinidad and Tobago football league system. The Pro League serves as a league for professional football clubs in Trinidad and Tobago. The league began in 1999 as part of a need for a professional league to strengthen the country's national team and improve the development of domestic players. The first season took place in the same year beginning with eight teams.
Basketball
Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Its national team is one of the most successful teams in the Caribbean. At the Caribbean Basketball Championship it won four straight gold medals from 1986 to 1990.[178]
Other sports
Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At the Netball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983.
Rugby is played in Trinidad and Tobago and continues to be a popular sport, and horse racing is regularly followed in the country.[179]
There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball/Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of the Pan American Baseball Confederation.
There are a number of 9 and 18-hole golf courses on Trinidad and Tobago. The most established is the St Andrews Golf Club, Maraval in Trinidad (commonly referred to as Moka), and there is a newer course at Trincity, near Piarco Airport called Millennium Lakes. There are 18-hole courses at Chaguramas and Point-a-Pierre and nine-hole courses at Couva and St Madeline. Tobago has two 18-hole courses. The older of the two is at Mount Irvine, with the Magdalena Hotel & Golf Club (formerly Tobago Plantations) being built more recently.[180]
Although a minor sport, bodybuilding is of growing interest in Trinidad and Tobago. Darrem Charles, a former world class body builder, is from Trinidad and Tobago.
Dragonboat is also another water-sport that has been rapidly growing over the years. Introduced in 2006. the fraternity made consistent strides in having more members a part of the TTDBF (Trinidad and Tobago Dragonboat Federation) as well as performing on an international level such as the 10th IDBF World Nations Dragon Boat Championships in Tampa, Florida in the US in 2011.[181]
Claude Noel is a former world champion in professional boxing. He was born in Tobago.[182]
The Trinidad and Tobago Chess Championship was started in 1937, and is an annual national chess championship.
National symbols
Flag
The flag was chosen by the Independence committee in 1962. Red, black and white symbolise the warmth of the people, the richness of the earth and water respectively.[183][184]
Coat of arms
The coat of arms was designed by the Independence committee, and features the scarlet ibis (native to Trinidad), the cocrico (native to Tobago) and hummingbird. The shield bears three ships, representing both the Trinity, and the three ships that Columbus sailed.[183]
Orders and decorations
There are five categories and thirteen classes of national awards:[185]
- The Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (formerly The Trinity Cross Medal of the Order of the Trinity) in Gold only
- The Chaconia Medal, in Gold, Silver and Bronze
- The Hummingbird Medal, in Gold, Silver and Bronze
- The Public Service Medal of Merit, in Gold, Silver and Bronze
- The Medal for the Development of Women, in Gold, Silver and Bronze
National anthem and national songs
The national anthem of the twin-island state is "Forged from the Love of Liberty".[186][187]
Other national songs include "God Bless Our Nation"[188] and "Our Nation's Dawning".[189]
National flower
The national flower of Trinidad and Tobago is the chaconia flower. It was chosen as the national flower because it is an indigenous flower that has witnessed the history of Trinidad and Tobago. It was also chosen as the national flower because of its red colour that resembles the red of the national flag and coat of arms and because it blooms around the Independence Day of Trinidad and Tobago.[190]
National birds
The national birds of Trinidad and Tobago are the scarlet ibis and the cocrico. The scarlet ibis is kept safe by the government by living in the Caroni Bird Sanctuary which was set up by the government for the protection of these birds. The Cocrico is more indigenous to the island of Tobago and is more likely to be seen in the forest.[191] The hummingbird is considered another symbol of Trinidad and Tobago due to its significance to the Indigenous peoples, however, it is not a national bird.[192]
العطلات
The following holidays are observed in Trinidad and Tobago.
| التاريخ | الاسم بالعربية | تعليقات |
|---|---|---|
| 1 يناير | رأس السنة | |
| Variable | كرنيڤال | Monday and Tuesday immediately preceding Ash Wednesday. Even though many businesses and schools close for Carnival Monday and Tuesday, they are not official public holidays. |
| Variable | عيد الفطر | End of Ramadan. It is the only public holiday in Trinidad and Tobago that recognizes Islam. It is the most important holiday on the Islamic calendar and the most widely and publicly celebrated Muslim holiday in the country. |
| Variable | عيد الفصح | Good Friday and Easter Monday |
| March 30 | Spiritual Baptist/Shouter Liberation Day | First country in the world to recognize the Spiritual Baptist faith with a national holiday |
| Variable | Corpus Christi | |
| May 30 | Indian Arrival Day | The first country in the world to recognise East-Indian Indentureship. |
| June 19 | Labour Day | Marks the labour uprising on 19th June 1937 which is generally recognised as the start of the modern trade union movement in Trinidad and Tobago. |
| August 1 | Emancipation Day | First country in the world to recognise emancipation from slavery. |
| August 31 | يوم الاستقلال | |
| September 24 | يوم الجمهورية | |
| Variable | ديڤالي | The Hindu festival of lights and the only holiday given in recognition of the Hindu faith. |
| December 25 | عيد الميلاد | |
| December 26 | يوم الملاكمة |
انظر أيضاً
- List of Trinidad and Tobago–related topics
- Outline of Trinidad and Tobago
- List of Trinidadians and Tobagonians
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المصادر
- Besson, Gérard & Brereton, Bridget. 1992. The Book of Trinidad. 2nd ed. Port of Spain: Paria Publishing Co. Ltd. ISBN 976-8054-36-0.
- Mendes, John. 1986. Cote ce Cote la: Trinidad & Tobago Dictionary. Arima, Trinidad.
- Saith, Radhica and Lyndersay, Mark. 1993. Why Not a Woman? Port of Spain: Paria Publishing Co. Ltd. ISBN 976-8054-42-5.
- Article and downloadable pdf file on corporal punishment in Trinidad and Tobago by Harvard Law School
- Inter-American Court of Human Rights orders Trinidad to pay compensation for flogging and humiliation of prisoners in March 2005
- Amnesty International report recording use of Cat o' nine tails on woman and young boy in Trinidad
- Inter-American Court of Human Rights' decisions and documents
- ILGA
وصلات خارجية
- Trinidad Cultural Website
- Official Government Website
- Central Statistical Office, Government of Trinidad and Tobago
- National emblems of Trinidad and Tobago
- Trini News
- The Trinidad and Tobago Webdirectory
- Trinidad and Tobago Online Community
- Official Tourism Website
- Official Tourism Website - Maps of Trinidad and Tobago
- Select National Bibliography
- Official Site of the Soca Warriors football team
- Football - Soca Warriors Online
see also:
المصدر
- الأقليات المسلمة قي الأمريكتين وبحر الكاريبي - سيد عبد المجيد بكر .
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- جزر الأنتيل الصغرى
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