كلكتا

(تم التحويل من Kolkata)
كلكتا
Kolkata، Calcutta
Megacity
مع عقارب الساعة من أعلى: Victoria Memorial, St. Paul's Cathedral, central business district, Howrah Bridge, city tram line, Vidyasagar Bridge
مع عقارب الساعة من أعلى: Victoria Memorial, St. Paul's Cathedral, central business district, Howrah Bridge, city tram line, Vidyasagar Bridge
الكنية: 
مدينة السعادة
العاصمة الثقافية للهند، مدينة القلاع، بوابة شرق الهند
Interactive Map Outlining Kolkata
كلكتا is located in البنغال الغربية
كلكتا
كلكتا
موقع كلكتا في غرب البنغال
كلكتا is located in الهند
كلكتا
كلكتا
كلكتا (الهند)
الإحداثيات: 22°34′N 88°22′E / 22.567°N 88.367°E / 22.567; 88.367
البلدالهند
الولايةغرب البنغال
التقسيمPresidency
Districtكلكتا[A]
الحكومة
 • النوعMayor–Council
 • الكيانKMC
 • MayorSovan Chatterjee[1]
 • SheriffRanjit Mallik[2]
 • Police commissionerSurajit Kar Purakayastha[3]
المساحة
 • Megacity185 كم² (71 ميل²)
 • العمران
1٬886٫67 كم² (728٫45 ميل²)
المنسوب
9 m (30 ft)
التعداد
 (2011)[4]
 • Megacity4٬486٬679
 • الترتيب7th
 • الكثافة24٬000/km2 (63٬000/sq mi)
 • العمرانية
[5]
14٬112٬536
 • Metropolitan rank
3rd
صفة المواطنCalcuttan
منطقة التوقيتUTC+05:30 (IST)
ZIP code(s)
700 001 to 700 157
مفتاح الهاتف+91-33
لوحة السيارةWB 01 to WB 10
UN/LOCODEIN CCU
اللغات الرسميةبنغالي والإنگليزية
الموقع الإلكترونيwww.kmcgov.in
  1. ^ The Kolkata metropolitan area also includes portions of North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Nadia, and Hooghly districts. See: Urban structure.
Bengali Letter Nya.svg
 هذه المقالة تحتوي على نص بنغالي. بدون دعم العرض المناصب، فقد ترى mojibake بدلاً من كتابة بنغالية.

كـُلـْكـَتا Kolkata (بالبنغالية: কলকাতা, IPA: 'kolkat̪a , سابقاً: Calcutta, هي عاصمة الولاية الهندية البنغال الغربي. وتقع في شرق الهند على الضفة الشرقية من نهر هوغلي. ويبلغ تعداد سكان المدينة نحو 4.5 مليون, وباضافة سكان المنطقة الحضرية المحيطة يبلغ تعدادها 14 مليون، الأمر الذي يجعلها ثالث أكبر تجمع حضري بالهند ورابع أكبر مدينة في الهند.[6] Kolkata is seventh most populous city with an estimated city proper population of 4.5 million (0.45 crore) while its metropolitan region Kolkata Metropolitan Area is third most populous metropolitan region of India with metro population of over 15 million (1.5 crore).[7] Kolkata is the regarded by many sources as the cultural capital of India and a historically and culturally significant city in the historic region of Bengal.[8][9][10] It is the second largest Bengali-speaking city in the world. It has the highest number of Nobel laureates among all cities in India.

كلكتا مدينة هندية. وهي عاصمة ولاية البنغال الغربية. وتُعد ميناءً رئيسيًا للتجارة مع شرقي وجنوب شرقي آسيا. وتبلغ مساحتها 104 كم²، وعدد سكانها 4,399,819 نسمة، وعدد سكان كلكتا الكبرى 11,021,918 نسمة. وتواجه المدينة مشكلة الانفجار السكاني وتلوث البيئة والأوبئة حيث تبلغ الكثافة 42,000 نسمة/كم². وتعاني المدينة من نقص خطير في السكن، حيث يسكن نحو 30% من سكانها في الحارات الفقيرة، وينام عشرات الآلاف في الطرقات.

The three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690,[11] the area was developed by the Company into Fort William. Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied the fort in 1756 but was defeated at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, after his general Mir Jafar mutinied in support of the company, and was later made the Nawab for a brief time.[12] Under company and later crown rule, Calcutta served as the de facto capital of India until 1911. Calcutta was the second largest city in the British Empire, after London,[13] and was the centre of bureaucracy, politics, law, education, science and the arts in India. The city was associated with many of the figures and movements of the Bengali Renaissance. It was the hotbed of the Indian nationalist movement.[14]

The partition of Bengal in 1947 affected the fortunes of the city. Following independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the premier centre of Indian commerce, culture, and politics, suffered many decades of political violence and economic stagnation before it rebounded.[15] In the late 20th century, the city hosted the government-in-exile of Bangladesh during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.[16] It was also flooded with Hindu refugees from East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) in the decades following the 1947 partition of India, transforming its landscape and shaping its politics.[17][18] The city was overtaken by Mumbai (formerly Bombay) as India's largest city.

A demographically diverse city, the culture of Kolkata features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods (paras) and freestyle conversations (adda). Kolkata's architecture includes many imperial landmarks, including the Victoria Memorial, Howrah Bridge and the Grand Hotel. The city's heritage includes India's only Chinatown and remnants of Jewish, Armenian, Greek and Anglo-Indian communities. The city is closely linked with Bhadralok culture and the Zamindars of Bengal, including Bengali Hindu, Bengali Muslim and tribal aristocrats. The city is often regarded as India's cultural capital.

توجد في كلكتا ثلاث جامعات: جامعة كلكتا، وجامعة جادافبور، وجامعة رابندرا بهاراتي، كما توجد معاهد للبحث العلمي والإحصاء والعلوم والصحة. Kolkata is home to venerable institutions of national importance, including the Academy of Fine Arts, the Asiatic Society, the Indian Museum and the National Library of India. The University of Calcutta, first modern university in south Asia and its affiliated colleges produced many leading figures of South Asia. It is the centre of the Indian Bengali film industry, which is known as Tollywood. Among scientific institutions, Kolkata hosts the Geological Survey of India, the Botanical Survey of India, the Calcutta Mathematical Society, the Indian Science Congress Association, the Zoological Survey of India, the Horticultural Society, the Institution of Engineers, the Anthropological Survey of India and the Indian Public Health Association. The Port of Kolkata is India's oldest operating port. Four Nobel laureates and two Nobel Memorial Prize winners are associated with the city.[19] Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata stands out in India for being the country's centre of association football. Kolkata is known for its grand celebrations of the Hindu festival of Durga Puja, which is recognized by UNESCO for its importance to world heritage.[20] Kolkata is also known as the 'City of Joy'.[21]

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

أصل الاسم

المقالة الرئيسية: أصل اسم كلكتا

The word Kolkata (بالبنغالية: কলকাতা [kolˈkata]) derives from Kôlikata (بالبنغالية: কলিকাতা [ˈkɔliˌkata]), the Bengali language name of one of three villages that predated the arrival of the British; the other two villages were Sutanuti and Govindapur.[22]

There are several explanations for the etymology of this name:

Although the city's name has always been pronounced Kolkata or Kôlikata in Bengali, the anglicised form Calcutta was the official name until 2001, when it was changed to Kolkata in order to match Bengali pronunciation.[26]


التاريخ

المقالة الرئيسية: History of Kolkata
Ships of the British East India Company near Fort William in the Port of Calcutta in 1735

The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh, 35 km (22 mi) north of Kolkata, provide evidence that the region in which the city stands has been inhabited for over two millennia.[27][28] Kolkata or Kalikata in its earliest mentions, is described to be a village surrounded with jungle on the bank of river Ganga as a renowned port, commercial hub and a hindu pilgrimage site for Kalighat Temple. The first mention of the Kalikata village was found in Bipradas Pipilai's Manasa Vijay (1495), where he describes how Chand Sadagar used to stop in Kalighat to worship Goddess Kali during his path to trade voyage.[29][30] Later Kalikata was also found to be mentioned in Mukundaram Chakrabarti's Chandimangal (1594), Todar Mal's taxation-list in 1596 and Krishnaram Das's Kalikamangal (1676-77).[30][31] Kalighat was then considered a safe place for businessmen. They used to carry on trade through the Bhagirathi and took shelter there at night.[32] Kolkata's recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. Job Charnock is often regarded as the founder of the city;[33] however, in response to a public petition,[34] the Calcutta High Court ruled in 2003 that the city does not have a founder.[35] The area occupied by the present-day city encompassed three villages: Kalikata, Gobindapur and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a fishing village, where a handful of merchants began their operations by building a factory;[32] Sutanuti was a riverside weavers' village; and Gobindapur was a trading post for Indian merchant princes. These villages were part of an estate belonging to the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family of zamindars. The estate was sold to the East India Company in 1698.[36]:1

أنشأت شركة الهند الشرقية البريطانية، وهي شركة إنجليزية، مدينة كلكتا عام 1690م، ثم أصبحت كلكتا عاصمة للهند عام 1773م. وبحلول القرن العشرين كانت كلكتا ثانية كبريات مدن الإمبراطورية البريطانية بعد مدينة لندن. وانتقلت العاصمة الهندية إلى دلهي عام 1912م لموقعها في وسط البلاد. وشهدت كلكتا عام 1946م، قبيل انفصال باكستان عن الهند، معارك طاحنة بين المسلمين والهندوس.

In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, located on the east bank of the Hooghly River to protect their trading factory.[37] Facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and tax evasion by the company. His warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked; his capture of Fort William led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta.[38] A force of Company soldiers (sepoys) and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year.[38] Per the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad following the battle of Buxar, East India company was appointed imperial tax collector of the Mughal emperor in the province of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, while Mughal-appointed Nawabs continued to rule the province.[39] Declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1773.[40]

In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished, and East India company took complete control of the city and the province. In the early 19th century, the marshes surrounding the city were drained; the government area was laid out along the banks of the Hooghly River. Richard Wellesley, Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William between 1797 and 1805, was largely responsible for the development of the city and its public architecture.[41] Throughout the late 18th and 19th century, the city was a centre of the East India Company's opium trade.[42] A census in 1837 records the population of the city proper as 229,700, of which the British residents made up only 3,138.[43] The same source says another 177,000 resided in the suburbs and neighbouring villages, making the entire population of greater Calcutta 406,700.

Tipu Sultan Mosque in 1945
Bengali billboards in 1945

In 1864, a typhoon struck the city and killed about 60,000 in Kolkata.[44]

By the 1850s, Calcutta had two areas: White Town, which was primarily British and centred on Chowringhee and Dalhousie Square; and Black Town, mainly Indian and centred on North Calcutta.[45] The city underwent rapid industrial growth starting in the early 1850s, especially in the textile and jute industries; this encouraged British companies to massively invest in infrastructure projects, which included telegraph connections and Howrah railway station. The coalescence of British and Indian culture resulted in the emergence of a new babu class of urbane Indians, whose members were often bureaucrats, professionals, newspaper readers, and Anglophiles; they usually belonged to upper-caste Hindu communities.[46] In the 19th century, the Bengal Renaissance brought about an increased sociocultural sophistication among city denizens. In 1883, Calcutta was host to the first national conference of the Indian National Association, which was the first avowed nationalist organisation in India.[47]

The partition of Bengal in 1905 along religious lines led to mass protests, making Calcutta a less hospitable place for the British.[48][49] The capital was moved to New Delhi in 1911.[50] Calcutta continued to be a centre for revolutionary organisations associated with the Indian independence movement. The city and its port were bombed several times by the Japanese between 1942 and 1944, during World War II.[51][52] Millions starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943 (at the same time of the war) due to a combination of military, administrative, and natural factors.[53] Demands for the creation of a Muslim state led in 1946 to an episode of communal violence that killed over 4,000.[54][55][56] The partition of India led to further clashes and a demographic shift—many Muslims left for East Bengal (later East Pakistan, present day Bangladesh), while hundreds of thousands of Hindus fled into the city.[57]

During the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist–Maoist movement by groups known as the Naxalites damaged much of the city's infrastructure, resulting in economic stagnation.[15] During East Pakistan's secessionist war of independence in 1971, the city was home to the government-in-exile of Bangladesh.[16] During the war, refugees poured into West Bengal and strained Kolkata's infrastructure.[58] The Eastern Command of the Indian military, which is based in Fort William, played a pivotal role in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and securing the surrender of Pakistan. During the mid-1980s, Mumbai (then called Bombay) overtook Kolkata as India's most populous city. In 1985, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi dubbed Kolkata a "dying city" in light of its socio-political woes.[59] In the period 1977–2011, West Bengal was governed from Kolkata by the Left Front, which was dominated by the Communist Party of India (CPM). It was the world's longest-serving democratically elected communist government, during which Kolkata was a key base for Indian communism.[60][61][62] The city's economic recovery gathered momentum after the 1990s, when India began to institute pro-market reforms. Since 2000, the information technology (IT) services sector has revitalised Kolkata's stagnant economy. The city is also experiencing marked growth in its manufacturing base. In the 2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election, Left Front was defeated by the Trinamool Congress.[63]

Geography

المقالة الرئيسية: Geography of Kolkata
Kolkata from space captured by Copernicus Sentinel-2.

Spread roughly north–south along the east bank of the Hooghly River, Kolkata sits within the lower Ganges Delta of eastern India approximately 75 km (47 mi) west of the international border with Bangladesh; the city's elevation is 1.5–9 m (5–30 ft).[64] Much of the city was originally a wetland that was reclaimed over the decades to accommodate a burgeoning population.[65] The remaining undeveloped areas, known as the East Kolkata Wetlands, were designated a "wetland of international importance" by the Ramsar Convention (1975).[66] As with most of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the soil and water are predominantly alluvial in origin. Kolkata is located over the "Bengal basin", a pericratonic tertiary basin.[67] Bengal basin comprises three structural units: shelf or platform in the west; central hinge or shelf/slope break; and deep basinal part in the east and southeast. Kolkata is located atop the western part of the hinge zone which is about 25 km (16 mi) wide at a depth of about 45,000 m (148,000 ft) below the surface.[67] The shelf and hinge zones have many faults, among them some are active. Total thickness of sediment below Kolkata is nearly 7,500 m (24,600 ft) above the crystalline basement; of these the top 350–450 m (1,150–1,480 ft) is Quaternary, followed by 4,500–5,500 m (14,760–18,040 ft) of Tertiary sediments, 500–700 m (1,640–2,300 ft) trap wash of Cretaceous trap and 600–800 m (1,970–2,620 ft) Permian-Carboniferous Gondwana rocks.[67] The quaternary sediments consist of clay, silt and several grades of sand and gravel. These sediments are sandwiched between two clay beds: the lower one at a depth of 250–650 m (820–2,130 ft); the upper one 10–40 m (30–130 ft) in thickness.[68] According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, on a scale ranging from I to V in order of increasing susceptibility to earthquakes, the city lies inside seismic zone III.[69]

Climate

المقالة الرئيسية: Climate of Kolkata

Kolkata is subject to a tropical wet-and-dry climate that is designated Aw under the Köppen climate classification. According to a United Nations Development Programme report, its wind and cyclone zone is "very high damage risk".[69]

Temperature

The annual mean temperature is 26.8 °C (80.2 °F); monthly mean temperatures are 19–30 °C (66–86 °F). Summers (March–June) are hot and humid, with temperatures in the low 30s Celsius; during dry spells, maximum temperatures sometime exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in May and June.[70] Winter lasts for roughly 2+1⁄2 months, with seasonal lows dipping to 9–11 °C (48–52 °F) in December and January. May is the hottest month, with daily temperatures ranging from 27–37 °C (81–99 °F); January, the coldest month, has temperatures varying from 12–23 °C (54–73 °F). The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 °C (111.0 °F), and the lowest is 5 °C (41 °F).[70] The winter is mild and very comfortable weather pertains over the city throughout this season. Often, in April–June, the city is struck by heavy rains or dusty squalls that are followed by thunderstorms or hailstorms, bringing cooling relief from the prevailing humidity. These thunderstorms are convective in nature, and are known locally as kal bôishakhi (কালবৈশাখী), or "Nor'westers" in English.[71]


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rainfall

Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west summer monsoon[72] lash Kolkata between June and September, supplying it with most of its annual rainfall of about 1,850 mm (73 in). The highest monthly rainfall total occurs in July and August. In these months often incessant rain for days brings life to a stall for the city dwellers. The city receives 2,107 hours of sunshine per year, with maximum sunlight exposure occurring in April.[73] Kolkata has been hit by several cyclones; these include systems occurring in 1737 and 1864 that killed thousands.[74][75] More recently, Cyclone Aila in 2009 and Cyclone Amphan in 2020 caused widespread damage to Kolkata by bringing catastrophic winds and torrential rainfall.

قالب:Kolkata weatherbox

Environmental issues

المقالة الرئيسية: Environmental issues in Kolkata

Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata. اعتبارا من 2008, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide annual concentration were within the national ambient air quality standards of India, but respirable suspended particulate matter levels were high, and on an increasing trend for five consecutive years, causing smog and haze.[76][77] Severe air pollution in the city has caused a rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments, such as lung cancer.[78]


Cityscape and urban structure

Aerial view of Kolkata with the Hooghly River

Kolkata, which is under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), has an area of 206.08 km2 (80 sq mi).[79] The east–west dimension of the city is comparatively narrow, stretching from the Hooghly River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the east—a span of 9–10 km (5.6–6.2 mi).[80] The north–south distance is greater, and its axis is used to section the city into North, Central, South and East Kolkata. North Kolkata is the oldest part of the city. Characterised by 19th-century architecture and narrow alleyways, it includes areas such as Jorasanko, Rajabazar, Maniktala, Ultadanga, Shyambazar, Shobhabazar, Bagbazar, Cossipore, Sinthee etc. The north suburban areas like Dum Dum, Baranagar, Belgharia, Sodepur, Khardaha, New Barrackpore, Madhyamgram, Barrackpore, Barasat etc. are also within the city of Kolkata (as a metropolitan structure).[81]:65–66 Central Kolkata hosts the central business district. It contains B. B. D. Bagh, formerly known as Dalhousie Square, and the Esplanade on its east; Rajiv Gandhi Sarani is on its west.[82] The West Bengal Secretariat, General Post Office, Reserve Bank of India, Calcutta High Court, Lalbazar Police Headquarters and several other government and private offices are located there. Another business hub is the area south of Park Street, which comprises thoroughfares such as Jawahar Lal Nehru Road, Abanindra Nath Tagore Sarani, Dr. Martin Luther King Sarani, Dr. Upendra Nath Brahmachari Sarani, Shakespeare Sarani and Acharay Jagadish Chandra Basu Road.[83]

Park Street, one of the posh areas in Kolkata

South Kolkata developed after India gained independence in 1947; it includes upscale neighbourhoods such as Bhowanipore, Alipore, Ballygunge, Kasba, Dhakuria, Santoshpur, Garia, Golf Green, Tollygunge, New Alipore, Behala, Barisha etc. The south suburban areas like Maheshtala, Budge Budge, Rajpur Sonarpur, Baruipur etc. are also within the city of Kolkata (as a metropolitan structure).[22] The Maidan is a large open field in the heart of the city that has been called the "lungs of Kolkata"[84] and accommodates sporting events and public meetings.[85] The Victoria Memorial and Kolkata Race Course are located at the southern end of the Maidan. Among the other parks are Central Park in Bidhannagar and Millennium Park on Rajiv Gandhi Sarani, along the Hooghly River.

الاقتصاد

Information technology hub at Salt Lake, a satellite township
Vendors selling flowers in a market. Informal economy in the form of hawkers has traditionally been a major part of the city's economy

يُستخدم العمال في عمليات توزيع وبيع المنتجات الصناعية، ويخدم ميناء كلكتا 10% من التجارة الخارجية، ونحو ثلث المصارف الأجنبية، يوجد في المدينة أيضا مقر رئاسة الغرفة التجارية الهندية. تمتاز كلكتا بصناعة الجوت لصناعة الجوالات، والصناعات الهندسية، وصناعة المنتجات الاستهلاكية، وصناعة الأحذية بجانب تعدين الفحم الحجري والحديد والمنجنيز والبترول. وعلى الرغم من تعدد الصناعات إلا أن المدينة تعاني من مشكلة البطالة.

الإدارة المدنية

Kolkata High Court

كلكتا عاصمة ولاية البنغال الغربية، ومقر حاكم الولاية والمجلس التشريعي ودواوين الحكومة والمحكمة العليا، كما أنها مقر عدد من المؤسسات القومية، مثل المكتبة القومية ومؤسسة المسوحات الجيولوجية ومصلحة الأرصاد الجوية. ويقوم بالإشراف على الإدارة المحلية بالمدينة هيئة البلديات، والتي تتكون من 100 عضو، وهذه الهيئة تنتخب العمدة واللجان، كما تشرف على المحافظ الذي يقوم بتنسيق الخدمات العامة بالمدينة.

خدمات المرافق ووسائل الإعلام

VSNL tower of VSNL-Tata Indicom — a major telecom service provider in the city

النقل

A busy road in Kolkata
The Howrah Bridge at night


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

التوزيع السكانى

One of Kolkata's slums


الثقافة

Dakshineswar Kali Temple in Kolkata
The Tipu Sultan Mosque
Kolkata is a centre of culture in India. Shown here is the National Library

اللغة والدين. يدين نحو 80% من سكان كلكتا بالديانة الهندوسية، واللغة الرسمية هي لغة البنغال، كما تتحدث الأقليات بالمدينة 60 لغة مختلفة. يُعدّ المسلمون أكبر الأقليات الدينية بالمدينة (15% من عدد السكان) بجانب النصارى والسيخ واليانيين والبوذيين.

أحد متنزهات مدينة كلكتا

التعليم

The Indian Institute of Management, one of India's most prestigious business schools has a campus in Kolkata


الرياضة

Eden Gardens, a venue for cricket matches


المدن الشقيقة

انظر أيضاً: List of twin towns and sister cities in India

هامش

  1. ^ "Sovan Chatterjee to be new Kolkata mayor". Hindustan Times. New Delhi. 6 June 2010. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
  2. ^ "Ranjit the sheriff". The Telegraph. 1 January 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
  3. ^ "New CP reaches slain cop's house with job letter". Times of India. 16 February 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
  4. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة 2011 pp tableA2
  5. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة kolkatauapop2011
  6. ^ "Better Integrated Transport Modes will Help Reinvent Kolkata". World Bank. 20 April 2016. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
  7. ^ "Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011; Cities having population 1 lakh and above" (PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
  8. ^ —Pielou, Adrianne (March 4, 2011). "India: Calcutta, the capital of culture". Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
    —"Kolkata remains cultural capital of India: Amitabh Bachchan". DNA India. 10 November 2012. Archived from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
    —"Foundation of Kolkata Museum of Modern Art laid". Business Standard. Press Trust of India. 14 November 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
    —Reeves, Philip (5 April 2007). "Calcutta: habitat of the Indian intellectual". National Public Radio. Archived from the original on Oct 4, 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
    —Noble, Allen and Frank Costa; Ashok Dutt; Robert Kent (1990). Regional development and planning for the 21st century : new priorities, new philosophies. Ashgate Pub Ltd. pp. 282, 396. ISBN 978-1-84014-800-8.
  9. ^ "World Urban Areas" (PDF). Demographia. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  10. ^ Pattanaik, Debashish; Anita Desai (2003). Calcutta: a cultural and literary history. Signal Books. p. xiv. ISBN 978-1-902669-59-5. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  11. ^ Dutta, K.; Desai, A. (April 2008). Calcutta: a cultural history. Northampton, Massachusetts, US: Interlink Books. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-1-56656-721-3.
  12. ^ "Victory for the British East India Company in the Battle of Plassey was the start of nearly two centuries of British rule in India."; Link: https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Plassey Archived 21 فبراير 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ Marshall, P. J. (2 August 2001). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521002547. Archived from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
  14. ^ "Kolkata and World War II: Tracing the sites of air raids that scarred the City of Joy". Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
  15. ^ أ ب —Banerjee, Partha Sarathi (5 February 2011), "Party, Power and Political Violence in West Bengal", Economic and Political Weekly 46 (6): 16–18, ISSN 0012-9976 
    —Gooptu, Nandini (1 June 2007), "Economic Liberalisation, Work and Democracy: Industrial Decline and Urban Politics in Kolkata", Economic and Political Weekly 42 (21): 1922–1933 
    —Jack, Ian (4 February 2011). "India's riptide of modern aspiration has not reached Kolkata – but that can't last". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
  16. ^ أ ب "Explained: How Kolkata's 8 Theatre Road hosted the first Bangladesh government". 26 March 2021. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
  17. ^ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 115–117, ISBN 978-0-521-67256-6, https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-regional-history/partition-india?format=PB&isbn=9780521672566, retrieved on 15 April 2023 
  18. ^ Tan, Tai Yong; Kudaisya, Gyanesh (2002), The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia, Taylor & Francis, pp. 172–175, ISBN 978-0-203-45060-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=O5zEtBxk72wC 
  19. ^ —"A Nobel habit: How Kolkata keeps producing winners". the hindu business line. Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
    —"The Nobel Prize Winners from Kolkata". pressenza. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
    —"checkout the list of Nobel Prize winners from Kolkata". the business insider. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
    —"Economist Abhijit Banerjee is the sixth Nobel winner with a Kolkata connection". the print. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
    —"Abhijit Banerjee is not the first Nobel laureate with a Kolkata connection – here are the others". timesnow. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
  20. ^ "Kolkata's Durga Puja gets world heritage tag". The Times of India. 16 December 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  21. ^ "Kolkata city of joy". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  22. ^ أ ب Chakravorty, Sanjoy (2000). "From colonial city to global city? The far-from-complete spatial transformation of Calcutta". In Marcuse, Peter; Kempen, Ronald van (eds.). Globalizing cities: a new spatial order?. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 56–77. ISBN 978-0-631-21290-4.
  23. ^ "Kalighat Kali Temple". kalighattemple.com (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 17 September 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
  24. ^ أ ب Chatterjee, S.N. (2008). Water resources, conservation and management. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. p. 85. ISBN 978-81-269-0868-4. Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  25. ^ Nair, P. Thankappan (1986). Calcutta in the 17th century. Kolkata: Firma KLM. pp. 54–58.
  26. ^ Easwaran, Kenny. "The politics of name changes in India". Open Computing Facility, University of California at Berkeley. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
  27. ^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A history of ancient and early medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century. New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 642-43. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
  28. ^ Das, S. (15 يناير 2003). "Pre-Raj crown on Clive House: abode of historical riches to be museum". The Telegraph. Kolkata. Archived from the original on 30 سبتمبر 2007. Retrieved 26 أبريل 2006.
  29. ^ Basu, Kunal K. (2023-06-29). "Adi Ganga : চাঁদ সওদাগর থেকে জীবনানন্দ…আদি গঙ্গার অজানা কাহিনি". Eisamay Gold (in Bengali). Retrieved 2024-04-04.
  30. ^ أ ب Mitra, Radharaman (1991). কলকাতা বিচিত্রা (in Bengali). Kolkata International Book Fair.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  31. ^ Biswas, Antara (2021-08-28). "আজও নানা রহস্যে ঘেরা জব চার্নকের আগের কলকাতার ইত". Daily News Reel (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 2024-04-04.
  32. ^ أ ب Bhaumik, Sudarshana (2022-08-26). The Changing World of Caste and Hierarchy in Bengal: Depiction from the Mangalkavyas c. 1700–1931 (in الإنجليزية). Taylor & Francis. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-1-000-64143-1.
  33. ^ Nair, P. Thankappan (1977). "A Portrait of Job Charnock". Job Charnock: The Founder of Calcutta: In Facts and Fiction: An Anthology. Calcutta: Engineering Times Publications. pp. 16–17. OCLC 4497022. There are no two opinions that Calcutta is not the product of the vision of Job Charnock ... Charnock alone founded Calcutta.
  34. ^ "Court changes Calcutta's history". BBC News. 16 May 2003. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
  35. ^ Gupta, Subhrangshu (18 May 2003). "Job Charnock not Kolkata founder: HC says city has no foundation day". The Tribune. Chandigarh, India. Archived from the original on 29 November 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
  36. ^ Banerjee, Himadri; Gupta, Nilanjana; Mukherjee, Sipra, eds. (2009). Calcutta mosaic: essays and interviews on the minority communities of Calcutta. New Delhi: Anthem Press. ISBN 978-81-905835-5-8. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  37. ^ Mitter, Partha (June 1986). "The early British port cities of India: their planning and architecture circa 1640–1757". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 45 (2): 95–114. doi:10.2307/990090. JSTOR 990090.
  38. ^ أ ب Hunter, William Wilson (1886). The Indian Empire: its peoples, history, and products. London: Trübner & co. pp. 381–82. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  39. ^ Ahmed, Farooqui Salma; Farooqui, Salma Ahmed (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. p. 369. ISBN 978-81-317-3202-1. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  40. ^ Arnold-Baker, Charles (30 July 2015). The Companion to British History. Taylor & Francis. p. 504. ISBN 978-1-317-40039-4. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018.
  41. ^ Dutta, Krishna (2003). Calcutta: a cultural and literary history. Oxford, UK: Signal Books. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-902669-59-5. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2007.
  42. ^ Pati, Biswamoy (2006). "Narcotics and empire". The Hindu; Frontline. 23 (10). Archived from the original on 16 October 2006. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
  43. ^ The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol. IV, (1848) London, Charles Knight, p.35
  44. ^ Tanya Saihgal (5 October 2018). "154 years ago, this infamous cyclone in Calcutta took over 60,000 lives and flooded the entire city". India Today. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
  45. ^ Hardgrave, Robert L. Jr (1990). "A portrait of Black Town: Balthazard Solvyns in Calcutta, 1791–1804". In Pal, Pratapaditya (ed.). Changing visions, lasting images: Calcutta through 300 years. Bombay: Marg Publications. pp. 31–46. ISBN 978-81-85026-11-4. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012.
  46. ^ Chaudhuri, NC (2001). The autobiography of an unknown Indian. New York: New York Review of Books. pp. v–xi. ISBN 978-0-940322-82-0.
  47. ^ Stępień, Jakub; Tokarski, Stanisław; Latos, Tomasz; Jarecka-Stępień, Katarzyna (2011). "Indian way to independence. The Indian National Congress". Towards freedom. Ideas of "solidarity" in comparison with the thought of the Indian National Congress. Kraków, Poland: Wydawnictwo Stowarzyszenia "Projekt Orient". pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-83-933917-4-5.
  48. ^ Chatterji, Joya (2007). The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 (in الإنجليزية). Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-139-46830-5. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
  49. ^ Wright, Tom (11 November 2011). "Why Delhi? The Move From Calcutta". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 6 June 2018. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
  50. ^ Hall, Peter (2002). Cities of tomorrow. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 198–206. ISBN 978-0-631-23252-0.
  51. ^ Randhawa, K. (15 September 2005). "The bombing of Calcutta by the Japanese". BBC. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2006.
  52. ^ "Pacific War timeline: New Zealanders in the Pacific War". New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on 21 أكتوبر 2008. Retrieved 13 أكتوبر 2008.
  53. ^ Sen, A (1973). Poverty and famines. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 52–85. ISBN 978-0-19-828463-5.
  54. ^ Burrows, Frederick (22 August 1946). A copy of a secret report written on 22 August 1946 to the Viceroy Lord Wavell, from Sir Frederick John Burrows, concerning the Calcutta riots. The British Library. IOR: L/P&J/8/655 f.f. 95, 96–107. Archived from the original. You must specify the date the archive was made using the |archivedate= parameter. http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indianindependence/indiapakistan/partition4/index.html. Retrieved on 25 February 2012. 
  55. ^ Das, Suranjan (2000). "The 1992 Calcutta Riot in Historical Continuum: A Relapse into 'Communal Fury'?". Modern Asian Studies. 34 (2): 281–306. doi:10.1017/S0026749X0000336X. JSTOR 313064. S2CID 144646764.
  56. ^ Suhrawardy, H. S. (1987). "Direct action day". In Talukdar, M. H. R. (ed.). Memoirs of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Dhaka, Bangladesh: The University Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-984-05-1087-0. Archived from the original on 14 March 2006.
  57. ^ Gandhi, R (1992). Patel: a life. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan. p. 497. ASIN B0006EYQ0A.
  58. ^ Bennett, A; Hindle, J (1996). London review of books: an anthology. London: Verso Books. pp. 63–70. ISBN 978-1-85984-121-1.
  59. ^ Follath, Erich (30 نوفمبر 2005). "From poorhouse to powerhouse". Spiegel Online. Hamburg. Archived from the original on 7 يوليو 2011. Retrieved 15 يناير 2011.
  60. ^ Biswas, S. (16 أبريل 2006). "Calcutta's colorless campaign". BBC News. Archived from the original on 14 فبراير 2012. Retrieved 26 أبريل 2006.
  61. ^ Dutta, Krishna (2003). Calcutta: a cultural and literary history. Oxford, UK: Signal Books. pp. 185–87. ISBN 978-1-902669-59-5. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
  62. ^ Singh, Chandrika (1987). Communist and socialist movement in India: a critical account. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. pp. 154–55. ISBN 978-81-7099-031-4. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
  63. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة bbceco
  64. ^ "PIA01844: space radar image of Calcutta, West Bengal, India". NASA. 15 April 1999. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
  65. ^ Chatterjee, S. N. (2008). Water Resources, Conservation and Management. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-269-0868-4.
  66. ^ Roy Chadhuri, S.; Thakur, A. R. (25 July 2006). "Microbial genetic resource mapping of East Calcutta wetlands". Current Science. 91 (2): 212–17.
  67. ^ أ ب ت (19 December 2009) "Characterization of soil over Kolkata municipal area" in Indian Geotechnical Conference. 1: 11–12. 
  68. ^ Bunting, S. W.; Kundu, N.; Mukherjee, M.. Situation analysis. Production systems and natural resources use in PU Kolkata. Stirling, UK: Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling. p. 3. Archived from the original. You must specify the date the archive was made using the |archivedate= parameter. http://www.dfid.stir.ac.uk/dfid/nrsp/download/sitanal.pdf. Retrieved on 26 April 2006. 
  69. ^ أ ب "Hazard profiles of Indian districts" (PDF). National Capacity Building Project in Disaster Management. UNDP. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006.
  70. ^ أ ب "Weatherbase entry for Kolkata". Canty and Associates LLC. Archived from the original on 7 سبتمبر 2011. Retrieved 26 أبريل 2006.
  71. ^ "kal Baisakhi". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 30 August 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2006.
  72. ^ Khichar, M. L.; Niwas, R. (14 July 2003). "Know your monsoon". The Tribune. Chandigarh, India. Archived from the original on 18 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.
  73. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة ESS
  74. ^ Bilham, Roger (1994). "The 1737 Calcutta earthquake and cyclone evaluated" (PDF). Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 84 (5): 1650–57. Bibcode:1994BuSSA..84.1650B. doi:10.1785/BSSA0840051650. S2CID 130396862. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  75. ^ Gastrell, James Eardley; Blanford, Henry Francis (1866). Report on the Calcutta cyclone of the 5th October 1864. Calcutta: O.T. Cutter, Military Orphan Press. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  76. ^ Central Pollution Control Board. "Annual report 2008–2009" (PDF). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. p. 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 أبريل 2012. Retrieved 2 فبراير 2012.
  77. ^ "Smog city chokes & grounds: foul air, moist and smoky". The Telegraph. Kolkata. 30 October 2008. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
  78. ^ Bhaumik, Subir (17 May 2007). "Oxygen supplies for India police". BBC. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2007.
  79. ^ "007 Kolkata (India)" (PDF). World Association of the Major Metropolises. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2007.
  80. ^ Calcutta, West Bengal, India (Map). Mission to planet earth program. NASA. 20 June 1996. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
  81. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة urbanprice
  82. ^ "Kolkata Heritage". Government of West Bengal. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
  83. ^ "BSNL may take two weeks to be back online". The Times of India. New Delhi. Times News Network (TNN). 9 July 2009. Archived from the original on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2011. With the Camac Street-Park Street-Shakespeare Sarani commercial hub located smack in the middle of the affected zone...
  84. ^ Yardley, Jim (27 January 2011). "In city's teeming heart, a place to gaze and graze". The New York Times. New York. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 27 November 2011. To Kolkata, it is the 'lungs of the city,' a recharge zone for the soul.
  85. ^ Das, Soumitra (21 February 2010). "Maidan marauders". The Telegraph. Kolkata. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
  86. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ Mazumdar, Jaideep (17 November 2013). "A tale of two cities: Will Kolkata learn from her sister?". Times of India. New Delhi. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
  87. ^ "Agreement on the establishment of Sister City Relations between Kolkata, Republic of India and Kunming, People's Republic of China". Oct 23, 2013. Retrieved Mar 17, 2018.
  88. ^ "The Twinning of Thessaloniki and Calcutta". 21 January 2005. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  89. ^ "Islamabad to get new sister city". Dawn. 5 January 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  90. ^ "Incheon Metropolitan City - Incheon City - Sister Cities". Incheon Metropolitan City. Archived from the original on 25 فبراير 2017. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  91. ^ "Sister Cities". Official site of Odessa. Retrieved Mar 17, 2018. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

Example.of.complex.text.rendering.svg هذه المقالة تحتوي نص هندي.
بدون دعم الإظهار لتلك الأبجديات، فقد ترى علامات استفهام أو مربعات أو رموز أخرى بدلاً من الحروف الهندية؛ أو وضع غير منتظم للحروف المتحركة وفقدان لعلامات الوصل.
يمكنك أن تجد معلومات أكثر عن Kolkata عن طريق البحث في مشاريع المعرفة:

Wiktionary-logo-en.png تعريفات قاموسية في ويكاموس
Wikibooks-logo1.svg كتب من معرفة الكتب
Wikiquote-logo.svg اقتباسات من معرفة الاقتباس
Wikisource-logo.svg نصوص مصدرية من معرفة المصادر
Commons-logo.svg صور و ملفات صوتية من كومونز
Wikinews-logo.png أخبار من معرفة الأخبار.


تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=كلكتا&oldid=4009188"