المجال الثقافي الصيني

هذا المقال هو عن a group of nations historically influenced by Chinese culture. إذا كنت تريد الاستخدامات الأخرى، انظر Sinosphere (disambiguation).
"East Asian cultural sphere" redirects here. For the Japanese imperialist concept, see Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Sinosphere
East Asian Cultural Sphere.svg
Chinese name
الصينية التقليدية東亞文化圈
漢字文化圈
الصينية المبسطة东亚文化圈
汉字文化圈
المعنى الحرفيEast Asian cultural sphere
Chinese character cultural sphere
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetVùng văn hóa Á Đông
Vùng văn hóa Đông Á
Vùng văn hóa chữ Hán
Chữ Nôm塳文化亞東
塳文化東亞
塳文化𡨸漢
Korean name
هانگول동아문화권
한자문화권
هان‌چا東亞文化圈
漢字文化圈
Japanese name
كانجي東亜文化圏
漢字文化圏
هيراگاناとうあぶんかけん
かんじぶんかけん
هذه المقالة تحتوي Vietnamese text. بدون دعم إظهار مناسب، فقد تشاهد علامات استفهام أو مربعات أو رموز أخرى بدلاً من chữ nôm, chữ Hán and chữ quốc ngữ.
East Asian Dragons are legendary creatures in East Asian mythology and culture.
The ways of saying and writing "Sinosphere" in major languages of the Sinosphere

The Sinosphere,[1] also known as the Chinese cultural sphere,[2] East Asian cultural sphere,[3] or the Sinic world,[4] encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that historically were heavily influenced by Chinese culture, norms and traditions.[4][5] According to academic consensus, the Sinosphere comprises Greater China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.[6] It may also refer to how Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese all employ Sino-Xenic pronunciations.[7][8] Other definitions may include the regions of modern-day Mongolia[9][10][11] and Singapore, largely due to limited historical Chinese influences or increasing modern-day Chinese diaspora.[12] The Sinosphere is not to be confused with Sinophone, which indicates countries where a Chinese-speaking population is dominant.[13]

Imperial China was a major regional power in Eastern Asia and had exerted influence on tributary states and neighboring states, among which were Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.[أ] These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted in Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. During classical history, the four cultures shared a common imperial system under respective emperors. Chinese inventions influenced, and were in turn influenced by, innovations of the other cultures in governance, philosophy, science, and the arts.[16][17][18] Written Classical Chinese became the regional lingua franca for literary and scientific exchange,[19] and Chinese characters became locally adapted in Japan as kanji, Korea as hanja, and Vietnam as chữ Hán.[20][21] The Baiyue were a collection of non-Han peoples that existed in southern China and northern Vietnam, which were subjugated by the Han empire.[22][23][24][25] Similarly, Manchuria or Northeast China, which also shared close relations to Korea,[26] had also practiced a form of assimilation with the Han Chinese. [27]

In late classical history, the literary importance of classical Chinese diminished as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam each adopted their own literary device. Japan developed the Katakana and Hiragana scripts, Korea created Hangul, and Vietnam developed chữ Nôm (which is now rarely used; the modern Vietnamese alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet).[28][29] Classical literature written in Chinese characters nonetheless remains an important legacy of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultures.[30] In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Confucianism and Buddhism remain visible in high culture and social doctrines.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Terminology

Ancient China has been regarded as one of the centers of civilization, with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration of original Han settlers from the Yellow River generally regarded as the starting point of the East Asian world. Today, China's population is approximately 1.402 billion.[31]

Japanese historian Nishijima Sadao (ja) (1919–1998), professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo, originally coined the term Tōa bunka-ken (東亜文化圏, 'East Asian Cultural Area'), conceiving of a Chinese or East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy of Confucianism, the religion of Buddhism, and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historical scholars in Classical Chinese.[5] It has also been informally referred to as the "chopsticks sphere" due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region.[32][33]


Etymology

Sometimes used as a synonym for the East Asian cultural sphere, the term Sinosphere derives from Sino- ('China, Chinese') and -sphere, in the sense of a sphere of influence (i.e., an area influenced by a country). (cf. Sinophone.)[34]

Sharing cognates, the "CJKV" languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese—translate the English term sphere as:

Unlike the other languages in the Sinosphere, Vietnamese does not use 'khuyên' 圈 to mean sphere or area.[ب] Rather, Vietnamese uses 'vùng', meaning a region or area. The translation for 東亞文化圈 in Vietnamese is Vùng văn hóa Á Đông (塳文化亞東).

In Ryukyuan languages, 圏 ’ちん’ 'chin' is not used to mean sphere or area or domain. This word is also found only on Kammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Ryukyuans use the term 世 'yu' meaning world or sphere. Thus, 漢字文化圏　and 東亜文化圏 would be translated as 漢字一型ぬ世 'kanjii tiigata nu yu' and 東亜一型ぬ世 'too-a tiigata nu yu' respectively.

Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these "culture sphere" terms.[35] The Chinese wénhuà quān (文化圈) dates back to a 1941 translation for the German term Kulturkreis, ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologists Fritz Graebner and Wilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historian Nishijima Sadao (ja) coined the expressions Kanji bunka ken (漢字文化圏, "Chinese-character culture sphere") and Chuka bunka ken (中華文化圏, "Chinese culture sphere"), which China later re-borrowed as loanwords. The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous to Ancient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In the 1930s in A Study of History, the Sinosphere along with the Western, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, Indic, etc. civilizations is presented as among the major "units of study".[36]

Comparisons with the West

British historian Arnold J. Toynbee listed the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his book A Study of History. He included Japan and Korea in his definition of "Far Eastern civilization" and proposed that they grew out of the "Sinic civilization" that originated in the Yellow River basin.[37] Toynbee compared the relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilization with that of the Hellenic and Western civilizations, which had an "apparentation-affiliation".[38]

American sinologist and historian Edwin O. Reischauer also grouped China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam into a cultural sphere that he called the "Sinic world", a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in northern China, comparing the relationship between northern China and East Asia to that of Greco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin had functioned in Europe.[39]

American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington considered the Sinic world as one of many civilizations in his book The Clash of Civilizations. He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations, one succeeding the other, in the early centuries of the Christian epoch",[40] Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[41] Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity.[42] Huntington's theory was that in a post-Cold War world, humanity "[identifies] with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities [and] at the broadest level, civilizations".[43][44] Yet, Huntington considered Japan as a distinct civilization.[45]

Culture

Imperial City, Huế , Vietnam. Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the East Asian architectural styles of Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.
Great Wave off Kanagawa, one of the most famous Japanese woodblock prints.

Arts

Cuisine

المقالة الرئيسية: East Asian cuisine
انظر أيضاً: Chinese cuisine, List of Chinese dishes, Vietnamese cuisine, Japanese cuisine, Korean cuisine, and Taiwanese cuisine

The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques. Chopsticks are used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries.[48] The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region.[49]

Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus of food security.[50] People who have no rice are often seen as having no food. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan (御飯; gohan), Korea (밥; bap), and Vietnam (cơm; 𩚵 or 粓), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general.[48]

Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include boba, kimchi, sushi, hot pot, tea, dim sum, ramen, as well as phở, sashimi, udon, and chả giò, among others.[51]

Traditions

  • Fashion: see Hanfu and Cheongsam (or Qipao) (Chinese and Manchu); Áo dài and Việt phục (Vietnamese); Hanbok (Koreans); Kimono and Wafuku (Japanese).
  • Dance: The lion dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture and other East Asian countries, in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion dances are usually performed during Lunar New Year celebrations.
  • New Year: China (Zhōngguó Xīn Nián), Korea (Seollal), Vietnam (Tết Nguyên Đán), Japan (Koshōgatsu), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year (Shōgatsu) to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration.[بحاجة لمصدر] Although mainland Japan may not celebrate the Lunar New Year anymore, there are some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan that still do, such as the Okinawan/Ryukyuan people. Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Festivities nowadays are not as elaborate as the Western new year, but Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year.[52]

Literature

المقالة الرئيسية: Adoption of Chinese literary culture
The first line of the Analects of Confucius in Classical Chinese, Standard Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean. Vietnamese is written in chữ Nôm, while Korean in Korean mixed script (한자혼용). Coloured words show vocabulary with the same meaning.

East Asian literary culture is based on the use of Literary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship and government across the region. Although each of these countries developed vernacular writing systems and used them for popular literature, they continued to use Chinese for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the 19th century.[53]

Throughout East Asia, Literary Chinese was the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature. Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[54] Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation of Middle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively into the local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies.[55] Vernacular or standard Chinese encompassing varieties of Chinese also developed in contrast to the use of Literary Chinese.

Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier, woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metal movable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.[56]

Japan's textual scholarship had Chinese origins, which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modern Sinology.[57]

Four Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books of Confucianism, where it was used to study for civil service examinations in China, Korea, and Vietnam.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الفلسفة والدين

المقالة الرئيسية: ديانات شرق آسيا, فلسفات شرق آسيا, and التعاليم الثلاثة

The Art of War, Tao Te Ching, I Ching, and Analects are classic Chinese texts that have been influential in East Asian history.[58]

الطاوية

المقالة الرئيسية: الطاوية

The Eastern Asian countries and Vietnam have been influenced by Taoism. Developed from an Eastern philosophy known as Tao, the religion was created in China from the teachings of Lao Tse. It follows the search for the tao, a concept that is equivalent to a path or course and represents the cosmic force that creates the universe and all things.

According to this belief, the wisdom of the tao is the only source of the universe and must be a natural path of life events that everyone should follow. Thus, the adherents of Taoism follow the search for tao, which means path and represents the strength of the universe.

The most important text in Taoism, the Tao Te Ching ("Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that the tao is the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" (wu wei) and spontaneity (zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, to achieve happiness and a long life.

Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources, manifesting itself as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life.

البوذية

بوذية مهايانا، ديانة خاصة بالعالم الصيني.
المقالة الرئيسية: بوذية شرق آسيا

Buddhist philosophy is guided by the teachings of the Buddha, which lead the individual to enlightenment through meditative practices, mindfulness, and reflection on their daily actions. The belief is that physical and spiritual awareness leads to a state of enlightenment called nirvana, which, according to Buddha, is the highest state of meditation. In this state the individual finds peace and tranquility above the oscillations of thoughts and emotions and is rid of the inherent suffering of the physical world.[59]

Buddhism in the Sinosphere or East Asian Buddhism is of or dervied from the Mahayana Buddhism sect, which is seen to be intertwined within Taoism and Confucianism as well.[60] It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping from suffering in relation to karma.[61] Vegetarianism or veganism is also present for more monastic or devout Buddhists of this sect, or even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings. [62][63][64]

الكونفوشية

تلعب الكونفوشية دوراً محورياً في ثقافة شرق آسيا.
Temple of Literature, Hanoi. Confucian education and imperial examinations played a huge role in creating scholars and mandarins (bureaucrats) for East Asian dynasties.
المقالة الرئيسية: كونفوشية

The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview.[39] Confucianism is a humanistic[65] philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are:[66]

  • rén (仁): an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals
  • yì (义/義): the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good
  • lǐ (礼/禮): a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life

الكونفوشية الجديدة

المقالة الرئيسية: الكونفوشية الجديدة

Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is primarily defined by the development of neo-Confucianism. During the Tang dynasty, Buddhism from Nepal also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang dynasty; the Confucianist scholar Han Yu is seen as a forebear of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty.[67] The Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[68]

Elsewhere in East Asia, Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenous Shinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism, and other schools of Chinese philosophy. Similar to Japan, in Korean philosophy, elements of shamanism were integrated into the neo-Confucianism imported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, were also developed into Vietnam's own Tam giáo, which together with Vietnamese folk religion contributed to shaping Vietnamese philosophy.

Other religions

Though not commonly identified with that of East Asia, the following religions have been influential in its history:[بحاجة لمصدر]

Christianity is the most popular religion in South Korea followed by Buddhism.[69] Significant Christian communities are also found in China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan and Vietnam.[70] In recent years, Christianity, mainly Protestant, Catholic (or Roman Catholic), as well as other denominations has been gaining more popularity in these areas, due to its own version of spirituality and charitability.[71][72] However, it's unlikely to supersede the more natively rooted Buddhism, except for places like South Korea where Christian Protestant is more popular.[69] In Vietnam, Roman Catholicism is prominent, and early Christian missionaries played a historical role in romanizing the Vietnamese language, before the time of French colonial rule.[73]

For Hinduism; see Hinduism in Vietnam, Hinduism in China.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Islam is the most popular religion in Xinjiang and has significant communities in Ningxia in China.

On the other hand, no specific religious affiliation may also be practiced as well, and are often the most cited in several aforementioned countries. However, regardless of religious affiliations, most in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies.

Language

Numbers in Chinese and Sinoxenic languages
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in CJKV languages. Shared vocabulary is coloured. From left to right, Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt) using the obsolete Chữ Nôm script, Korean (Han'gugeo; 한국어), Japanese (Nihongo; にほんご), and Chinese (Zhōngwén; ㄓㄨㄥ ㄨㄣˊ).


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Languages and language families

The following language families are found in and around the East Asian cultural sphere. Some have historically contributed to the vocabulary or development of Sinitic languages, and others have been influenced to some degree by them. Only some of these languages are highly indebted to Literary Chinese and thus relevant to the East Asian cultural sphere.

  1. Sino-Tibetan: spoken mainly in China, Singapore, Myanmar, Christmas Island, Bhutan, northeast India, Kashmir, and parts of Nepal. Major Sino-Tibetan languages include the varieties of Chinese, the Tibetic languages, and Burmese. These are thought to have originated around the Yellow River, north of the Yangtze.[77][78]
  2. Austronesian: spoken mainly in what is today Taiwan, East Timor, Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Madagascar, and most of Oceania. Major Austronesian languages include the Formosan languages, Malay, Filipino, Malagasy, and Māori.[79][80]
  3. Turkic: spoken mainly in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Cyprus, and Turkey. Major Turkic languages include Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uyghur, Tuvan, and Altai.[81][82][83]
  4. Austroasiatic: spoken mainly in Vietnam, and Cambodia. Major Austroasiatic languages include Vietnamese and Khmer.
  5. Kra-Dai: spoken mainly in Thailand, Laos, and parts of southern China. Major Kra-Dai languages include Zhuang, Thai, and Lao.
  6. Mongolic: spoken mainly in Mongolia, China, and Russia. Major Mongolian languages include Oirat, Mongolian, Monguor, Dongxiang, and Buryat.
  7. Tungusic: spoken mainly in China and Russia. Major Tungusic languages include Evenki, Manchu, and Xibe.
  8. Koreanic: spoken mainly in Korea. Major Korean languages include Korean and Jeju.
  9. Japonic: spoken mainly in Japan. Major Japonic languages include Japanese, Ryukyuan, and Hachijo.
  10. Ainu: spoken mainly in Japan. The only surviving Ainu language is Hokkaido Ainu.

Core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese.[84][85][86] There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such as Zhuang and Hmong-Mien. They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country or heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written in Hanzi-inspired characters called Sawndip for over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages.[87]

As a result, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese are also deemed Sino-Xenic languages that are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese.[7] [8]

Writing systems

Writing systems around the world
Writing systems of the Far East
Writing system Regions
Logograms (Hanzi and its variants) China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam*, Taiwan
Logograms (Dongba symbols) China (used by the Naxi ethnic minorities in China)
Syllabary (Kana) Japan
Syllabary (Yi script) China (used by the Yi ethnic minorities in China)
Semi-syllabary (Bopomofo) Taiwan and historically Mainland China. (Used to aid in the learning of Hanzi, especially reading and writing, in elementary schools. On the mainland, it is used only in the Xiandai Hanyu Cidian.)
Alphabet (Latin) Vietnam, China (used by some ethnic minorities in China, such as the Miao people); Taiwan (Tâi-lô Latin script for the Taiwanese Hokkien language)
Alphabet (Hangul) Korea, China (used by the Choson ethnic minorities in northeastern China)
Alphabet (Cyrillic) Mongolia (though there is a movement to switch back to Mongolian script)[88]
Alphabet (Mongolian) Mongolia*, China (Inner Mongolia)
Logograms (Chữ Nôm) Vietnam*, China (Dongxing, Guangxi), still used by the Gin people today
Abugida (Brahmic scripts of Indian origin) Singapore, China (Tibet, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture)
Abugida (Pollard script) China (used by the Hmong ethnic minorities in China)
Abjad (Uyghur Arabic alphabet) China (Xinjiang)
* Official usage historically. Currently used unofficially.


Development of kana from Chinese characters
Countries and regions using Chinese characters as a writing system:
Dark Green: Traditional Chinese, used officially (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau)
: Simplified Chinese, used officially, but traditional form is also used in publishing (Singapore, Malaysia).[89]
Light Green: Simplified Chinese, used officially, traditional form in daily use is uncommon (China)
Cyan: Chinese characters are used in parallel with other scripts in respective native languages (South Korea, Japan).
Yellow: Chinese characters were once used officially, but this is now obsolete (Mongolia, North Korea, Vietnam).

Chinese characters are considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have used Chinese characters. Today, they are mainly used in China, Japan, and South Korea, albeit in different forms.

Mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore use simplified characters, whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use Traditional Chinese.

Japan still uses kanji but has also invented kana, inspired by the Chinese cursive script.

Korea used to write in hanja but has invented an alphabetic system called hangul that is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is a required subject in South Korea. Most names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms and Sino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.

Vietnam used to write in chữ Hán (Chinese characters) in Classical Chinese texts (Hán văn). In the 8th century, they began inventing many of their own chữ Nôm characters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ. However, Chinese characters still hold a special place in these cultures, as their history and literature have been greatly influenced by them. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design.

Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, called Sawndip. Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but in 1957, China introduced an alphabetical script for the language, which is what it officially promotes.[90]

Economy and trade

Business culture

The business cultures of East Asia are heavily influenced by Confucianism. Japan often features hierarchically organized companies, and Japanese work environments place a high value on interpersonal relationships.[91] A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker.[92][93]

Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around a patriarchal family governed by filial piety (孝順�) between management and a company's employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors (seonbae), or their juniors (hubae). And usually positions within a company is reflective of a person's age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause.[94] Koreans place value on maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker's "kibun" (their mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced.[95]

Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships.[93][95] In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept of "guanxi" which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another.[96][97]

In Vietnamese culture, the culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority, and Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status as soldiers before) and maintaining face is highly important. Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Anger or displaying temper will reduce trust and Vietnamese business people may take spoken word as fact. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down.[98][99]

Common factors across Sinosphere tends to place great emphasis and respect towards traits of humility and conformity. [100][101][102][103]

History

During the Industrial Revolution, East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power, starting with the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century, when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area.[104]

Postwar economies

Hong Kong's successful postwar economy led to the country's categorization as one of the Four Asian Tigers, developing strong textile and manufacturing industries.[105] South Korea followed a similar route, developing its textile industry.[105] After the Korean War, the US military occupation of the country following the end of World War II, and the ultimate division of the peninsula, South Korea experienced what has become known as the Miracle on the Han River, with the rise of chaebols like Samsung, LG, etc. strongly driving its economy, and as of 2023, has the 12th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP.[106][107]

Since the 1990s, Japanese growth has stagnated, while currently remaining the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP. Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and the Tiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam.[108][109][110][111]

The impact of the Vietnam War was devastating. Vietnam only started opening its economy through Đổi Mới reforms in 1986, and the US only lifted its embargo on Vietnam in 1995. Over the last few decades, Vietnam has been developing at a rapid pace.

Modern era

ASEAN nations, of which Vietnam is a part of. Singapore, one of the most successful Southeast Asian states, may also be considered as Sinosphere in some circumstances (due to its majority overseas Chinese population).

Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China. Most Chinese-Vietnamese people are from Cantonese background, and can speak Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities.[112] Vietnam, one of the Next Eleven countries اعتبارا من 2005, is regarded as a rising economic power in Southeast Asia.[113]

Since the Chinese economic reform, China has become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP and GDP (PPP).[114][115]

Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest of ASEAN, Vietnam is the only one in the Sinosphere that is formally part of ASEAN as a Southeast Asian country. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantly overseas Chinese. China's and Japan's economies are respectively the world's second and third-largest economies by nominal GDP, and both are highly influential on the world's tapestry in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of the Korean wave since the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest by nominal GDP in 2023.

Relations

Mutual relations stem from hundreds to thousands of years of history between each state, originating from the advent of the spread of Classical Chinese writing, conquest, or from trade and cultural flow. Although there were long historical connections between each side, instances of racism or xenophobia towards the other stemming from deep-rooted historical, economic, political or regional differences has also been a major concern.

Additionally, besides mutual relations, various forms of inheritance of Chinese civilisation or "Little China" ideologies have surfaced with Vietnam, Japan, Korea, (the use of 中國 in self-reference) in various situations, conferring the "Chinese" label.

  • Korea and Japan have had extensive links in terms of culture, trade, political contact and military confrontations. The history of Japan–Korea relations extends for over 15 centuries, with many ideas from mainland Asia flowing into Japan via Korea in historical times.[116] Although geographically close, the two countries are culturally distinct from one another and may harbor contrasting military and historical viewpoints, where relations can turn fraught, especially in the context of Japanese colonization.[117][118][119]
  • Likewise, Vietnam and China have had relations since 111 BC when the Han dynasty conquered parts of northern Vietnam, as well as northern Korea in 109 BC, although Chinese influences began before then as well. Chinese rule and influence continued to impact Vietnam and Korea.[120] Vietnam and China's relations are linked with many cultural and philosophical thought emanating from China transferring to Vietnam, as well as many confrontations between the two. Although currently politically similar, relations can oftentimes become fraught and unsound as well.[121][122][123]
    • The various Baiyue (Bách Việt in Vietnamese, the Hundred Yue's), were vaguely but historically connected to southern Chinese and Vietnamese. In the past "粵" (Yue, Viet, Cantonese) was interchangeable with the homophonous character that today refers specifically to the Vietnamese [越] (Yue, Viet, Vietnamese). Cantonese scholars looked through earlier Chinese sources to find historical information about the Việt/Yue, be it recorded with [粵] or [越]. [25]
  • Japan has long been influenced by China for around 2 millennia and emulated many cultural and philosophical thought, with many Japanese undertaking studies that came from China or via Korea.[116] Culture, trade, and military confrontation has been a major focal point between the two as well and relations can become very fraught.[124]
  • Vietnam and Korea had semi-official encounters when both countries' envoys met in China from the 16th to 19th century.[125][126] Despite the geographical distance, the countries share many parallels such as colonial rule, and historical or current political division.[126] South Korea was involved in the controversial Vietnam War with South Vietnam as well.[127] Although relations appear courteous, tensions on the Korean peninsula prevent any major relations truly forming without angering the other political side,[128] with Vietnam ultimately used as neutral ground for a North Korean-US summit. [129][130]
  • Japan's links with Vietnam and the rest of Southeast Asia was mainly through maritime trade stemming from the 16th century.[131] Japan's relations with Vietnam went further back into the 8th century via China.[132][133] Although some residual grievances of Japan's colonizing past in Asia may remain, as well as existing political differences, the relation has mostly been of mutualism.[134][135] However, instances of mistreatment, such as abuse towards Vietnamese laborers in Japan, has surfaced. [136] [137]
  • Korea and China relations are extensive and several millennia old with much cultural trade and thought transferring into Korea from China, with parts of Korea having also been subsumed by Chinese rule since 109 BC, as well as partaking in several military confrontations.[120] Much of the history between Korea and China focused on Northeast Asia, also playing a role in transmitting knowledge to Japan.[116] Along with the long history between the two, relations between them may also become fraught.[138]

Gallery

انظر أيضاً

العلاقات:

Notes

  1. ^ Vietnam and Korea remained tributary states of China for much of their histories, while Japan only submitted fully to Chinese regional hegemony during the Muromachi period.[14][15]
  2. ^ This word is not used to mean 'sphere or circle' in Vietnamese, rather it has the meaning of an earring; the 'sphere' sense is only found in Literary Chinese texts, but not at all in Vietnamese.

References

Citations

  1. ^ Fogel 2009; Matisoff 1990.
  2. ^ Zhang, Linjun; Han, Zaizhu; Zhang, Yang (2022). "Reading Acquisition of Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 131. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
  3. ^ Lowe & Yasuhara 2016; Choi 2010.
  4. ^ أ ب Reischauer, Edwin O. (1974-01-01). "The Sinic World in Perspective | Foreign Affairs" (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  5. ^ أ ب Wang Hui, "'Modernity and 'Asia' in the Study of Chinese History," in Eckhardt Fuchs, Benedikt Stuchtey, eds.,Across cultural borders: historiography in global perspective [1] (Rowman & Littlefield, 2002 ISBN 978-0-7425-1768-4), p. 322.
  6. ^ Lowe & Yasuhara 2016; Wang 2015; Denecke & Nguyen 2017.
  7. ^ أ ب Osterkamp, Sven (2015-12-30) (in en), Sino-Xenic Readings, Brill, https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-chinese-language-and-linguistics/sino-xenic-readings-COM_00000388, retrieved on 2023-11-10 
  8. ^ أ ب (in en)Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese language are so similar to Mandarin(原來韓文、越南文、日文跟中文這麼像), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcR2n8-2m-o, retrieved on 2023-11-10 
  9. ^ Billé, Franck; Urbansky, Sören (2018). Yellow Perils: China Narratives in the Contemporary World. University of Hawaii Press. p. 173. ISBN 9780824876012.
  10. ^ Christian, David (2018). A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Volume II: Inner Eurasia from the Mongol Empire to Today, 1260–2000. John Wiley & Sons. p. 181. ISBN 9780631210382.
  11. ^ Grimshaw-Aagaard, Mark; Walther-Hansen, Mads; Knakkergaard, Martin (2019). The Oxford Handbook of Sound and Imagination: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 423. ISBN 9780190460167.
  12. ^ Gold, Thomas B. (1993). "Go with Your Feelings: Hong Kong and Taiwan Popular Culture in Greater China". The China Quarterly. 136 (136): 907–925. doi:10.1017/S0305741000032380. ISSN 0305-7410. JSTOR 655596. S2CID 154597583.
  13. ^ Hee, Wai-Siam (2019). Remapping the Sinophone: The Cultural Production of Chinese-Language Cinema in Singapore and Malaya before and during the Cold War (1 ed.). Hong Kong University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvx1hwmg. ISBN 978-988-8528-03-5. JSTOR j.ctvx1hwmg. S2CID 213443949.
  14. ^ Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia before the West : five centuries of trade and tribute (Paperback ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15319-5. OCLC 794366373.
  15. ^ Howe, Christopher. The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia. p. 337
  16. ^ Nanxiu Qian; Richard J Smith; Bowei Zhang, eds. (2020). Rethinking the Sinosphere: Poetics, Aesthetics, and Identity Formation. Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1604979909.
  17. ^ Nanxiu Qian; Richard J Smith; Bowei Zhang, eds. (2020). Reexamining the Sinosphere: Cultural Transmissions and Transformations in East Asia. Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1604979879.
  18. ^ Jeffrey L. Richey (2013). Confucius in East Asia: Confucianism's History in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Association for Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0924304736.
    • Ching-I Tu, ed. (2010). East Asian Confucianism: Interactions and Innovations. Rutgers University. ISBN 978-0615389325.
    • Chun-chieh Huang, ed. (2015). East Asian Confucianisms: Texts in Contexts. National Taiwan University Press and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 9783847104087.
  19. ^ Denecke, Wiebke; Li, Wai-yee; Tian, Xiaofei (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-935659-1.
  20. ^ Asher, R. E.; Moseley, Christopher (19 April 2018). Atlas of the World's Languages (in الإنجليزية). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-85108-0.
  21. ^ Lacoste, Véronique; Leimgruber, Jakob; Breyer, Thiemo (14 October 2014). Indexing Authenticity: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-034701-2.
  22. ^ Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerry; Luo, Yongxian (2008). The Tai-Kadai Languages. Routledge (published August 20, 2008). p. 9. ISBN 978-0700714575.

    Holcombe, Charles (2001). The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. - A.D. 907. University of Hawaii Press (published May 1, 2001). p. 150. ISBN 978-0824824655.

    Diller, Anthony (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 978-0415688475.

    Wang, William (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. Oxford University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0199856336.

    Barlow, Jeffrey G. (1997). "Culture, ethnic identity, and early weapons systems: the Sino-Vietnamese frontier". In Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven; Jay, Jennifer W. (eds.). East Asian cultural and historical perspectives: histories and society—culture and literatures. Research Institute for Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies, University of Alberta. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-921490-09-8.

  23. ^ Hsu, Cho-yun; Lagerwey, John (2012). Y. S. Cheng, Joseph (ed.). China: A Religious State. Columbia University Press (published June 19, 2012). pp. 193–194.
  24. ^ Meacham, William (1996). "Defining the Hundred Yue". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 15: 93–100. doi:10.7152/bippa.v15i0.11537.
  25. ^ أ ب Kelley, Liam C. (2012-07-01). "The Biography of the Hồng Bàng Clan as a Medieval Vietnamese Invented Tradition". Journal of Vietnamese Studies (in الإنجليزية). 7 (2): 87–130. doi:10.1525/vs.2012.7.2.87. ISSN 1559-372X.
  26. ^ أ ب Yun, Peter (2016). "Guest Editor's Introduction: Manchuria and Korea in East Asian History" (PDF). International Journal of Korean History. 21 (1): 1–10. doi:10.22372/ijkh.2016.21.1.1.
  27. ^ أ ب Huang, Pei (2011). Reorienting the Manchus: A Study of Sinicization, 1583-1795 (in الإنجليزية). East Asia Program, Cornell University. ISBN 9781933947921.
  28. ^ Benjamin A Elman, ed. (2014). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. Brill. ISBN 978-9004279278.
  29. ^ Pelly, Patricia (2018). "Vietnamese Historical Writing". The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 5: Historical Writing Since 1945. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199225996.003.0028. ISBN 978-0-19-922599-6.
  30. ^ Takacs, Sarolta (4 March 2015). The Modern World: Civilizations of Africa, Civilizations of Europe, Civilizations of the Americas, Civilizations of the Middle East and Southwest Asia, Civilizations of Asia and the Pacific. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45572-1.
  31. ^ "Huang He Valley". National Geographic Society. 9 September 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  32. ^ Lung-Sheng Lee, Steven (2013). "Achieving Quality Assurance and Moving to a World Class University in the 21st Century" (PDF) – via Institute of Education Science. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ^ Wang 2015, pp. 67–92.
  34. ^ Handel, Zev (7 May 2019). Sinography: The Borrowing and Adaptation of the Chinese Script. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-35222-3.
  35. ^ Victor Mair, Sinophone and Sinosphere, Language Log, 8 November 2012.
  36. ^ See the "family tree" of Toynbee's "civilizations" in any edition of Toynbee's work, or e.g. as Fig.1 on p.16 of: The Rhythms of History: A Universal Theory of Civilizations, By Stephen Blaha. Pingree-Hill Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-9720795-7-2.
  37. ^ Sun, Lung-kee (2002). The Chinese National Character: From Nationalhood to Individuality. M.E. Sharpe. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-7656-3936-3.
  38. ^ Sun, Lung-kee (2002). The Chinese National Character: From Nationalhood to Individuality. M.E. Sharpe. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7656-0826-0.
  39. ^ أ ب Reischauer, Edwin O. (1974). "The Sinic World in Perspective". Foreign Affairs. 52 (2): 341–348. doi:10.2307/20038053. JSTOR 20038053.
  40. ^ The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996; ISBN 0684811642), p. 45
  41. ^ William E. Davis (2006). Peace and Prosperity in an Age of Incivility. University Press of America. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7618-3248-5.
  42. ^ Michail S. Blinnikov (2011). A Geography of Russia and Its Neighbors. Guilford Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-60623-933-9.
  43. ^ Lung-kee Sun (2002). The Chinese National Character: From Nationalhood to Individuality. M.E. Sharpe. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7656-0826-0.
  44. ^ Hugh Gusterson (2004). People of the bomb: portraits of America's nuclear complex. U of Minnesota Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-8166-3860-4.
  45. ^ McCormack, Gavan; Field, Norma (8 July 2016). The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-49935-2.
  46. ^ McCannon, John (February 2002). How to Prepare for the AP World History. Barrons Educational Series. ISBN 9780764118166.
  47. ^ Pan, Lu (22 June 2015). Aestheticizing Public Space: Street Visual Politics in East Asian Cities. Intellect Books. ISBN 978-1-78320-453-3.
  48. ^ أ ب Davidson, Alan (1981). Food in Motion: The Migration of Foodstuffs and Cookery Techniques : Proceedings : Oxford Symposium 1983. Oxford Symposium. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-907325-07-9.
  49. ^ Katz, Sandor Ellix (14 May 2012). The Art of Fermentation: New York Times Bestseller. Chelsea Green Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60358-364-0.
  50. ^ Wen S. Chern; Colin A. Carter; Shun-yi Shei (2000). Food security in Asia: economics and policies. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-78254-334-3.
  51. ^ Kim, Kwang-Ok (1 February 2015). Re-Orienting Cuisine : East Asian Foodways in the Twenty-First Century. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. p. 14. ISBN 9781782385639.
  52. ^ "Tradition: Okinawa Lunar New Year Celebration". Travelthruhistory. 20 January 2010. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  53. ^ Kornicki, P.F. (2011), "A transnational approach to East Asian book history", in Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit, New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History, Worldview Publications, pp. 65–79, ISBN 978-81-920651-1-3. Kornicki 2011, pp. 75–77
  54. ^ Kornicki (2011), pp. 66–67.
  55. ^ Miyake (2004), pp. 98–99.
  56. ^ Kornicki (2011), p. 68.
  57. ^ "Given Japan's strong tradition of Chinese textual scholarship, encouraged further by visits by eminent Chinese scholars since the early 20th century, Japan has been one of the birthplaces of modern sinology outside China" Early China – A Social and Cultural History, page 11. Cambridge University Press.
  58. ^ Willett-Wei, Megan. "30 Books That Changed the Course of History". Business Insider. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  59. ^ "Buddhism". education.nationalgeographic.org (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-11-13.
  60. ^ Lin, Yi-Ying; Swanson, Dena Phillips; Rogge, Ronald David (2021). "The Three Teachings of East Asia (TTEA) Inventory: Developing and Validating a Measure of the Interrelated Ideologies of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism". Frontiers in Psychology. 12. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626122. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 7956942. PMID 33732190.
  61. ^ "Death and Dying in Buddhism". www.bristol.ac.uk (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). Retrieved 2023-11-13.
  62. ^ Tseng, Ampere A. (2020-02-01). "Equivalent Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Mahayana Buddhists Practicing Vegetarian Diets". Journal of Religion and Health (in الإنجليزية). 59 (1): 598–613. doi:10.1007/s10943-017-0511-0. ISSN 1573-6571. PMID 29058160. S2CID 33627817.
  63. ^ Kapleau, Philip (1986). "To cherish all life：a Buddhist case for becomingvegetarian [2nd ed.]" (in الإنجليزية). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  64. ^ https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1216&context=jats
  65. ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005). Religion in global civil society. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19-518835-6.
  66. ^ Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 0-19-285421-6 p. 536
  67. ^ Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods by Huang, Siu-chi. p. 5
  68. ^ Chan 1963, p. 460.
  69. ^ أ ب Choi, Hyaeweol. "The Sacred and the Secular: Protestant Christianity as Lived Experience in Modern Korea: An Introduction". read.dukeupress.edu. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
  70. ^ Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  71. ^ Lai, Whalen (1992). "Chinese Buddhist and Christian Charities: A Comparative History". Buddhist-Christian Studies. 12: 5–33. doi:10.2307/1389952. ISSN 0882-0945. JSTOR 1389952.
  72. ^ https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1185&context=vhj
  73. ^ N. V. Hai, Peter (2012). "A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Vietnam" (PDF). East Asian Pastoral Review. 49 (1): 109–130.
  74. ^ "A Little Faith: Christianity and the Japanese". nippon.com (in الإنجليزية). 2019-11-22. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
  75. ^ McCracken, Brett (2018-09-24). "How the Gospel Takes Root in 'Crazy Rich' Singapore". The Gospel Coalition (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 2023-11-13.
  76. ^ "STATISTICS SINGAPORE – Infographic – General Household Survey 2015" (PDF). STATISTICS SINGAPORE. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2018.
  77. ^ Jin, Li; Wuyun Pan; Yan, Shi; Zhang, Menghan (24 April 2019). "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic". Nature (in الإنجليزية). 569 (7754): 112–115. Bibcode:2019Natur.569..112Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31019300. S2CID 129946000.
  78. ^ Sagart, Laurent; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin J.; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019). "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (21): 10317–10322. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11610317S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817972116. PMC 6534992. PMID 31061123.
  79. ^ (19–20 August 2004) "Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies" in Symposium Austronesia, Pascasarjana Linguististik dan Kajian Budaya Universitas Udayana.. OCLC 677432806. 
  80. ^ Trejaut, Jean A; Kivisild, Toomas; Loo, Jun Hun; et al. (2005). "Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations". PLOS Biology (in الإنجليزية). 3 (8): e247. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030247. PMC 1166350. PMID 15984912.
  81. ^ Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; Metspalu, Ene; et al. (21 April 2015). "The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia". PLOS Genetics. 11 (4): e1005068. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068. ISSN 1553-7390. PMC 4405460. PMID 25898006.
  82. ^ Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (2003). Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses. Routledge. p. 203. ISBN 9781134828692.
  83. ^ "Transeurasian theory: A case of farming/language dispersal". ResearchGate. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  84. ^ DeFrancis, John (1977). Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 9027976430. OCLC 4230408.
  85. ^ Sohn, Ho-min. (1999). The Korean language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521361230. OCLC 40200082.
  86. ^ Shibatani, Masayoshi. (1990). The languages of Japan. 柴谷, 方良, 1944- (Reprint 1994 ed.). Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521360706. OCLC 19456186.
  87. ^ Ratliff, Martha Susan. (2010). Hmong-Mien language history. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 9780858836150. OCLC 741956124.
  88. ^ "Why reading their own language gives Mongolians a headache". SoraNews24. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  89. ^ 林友順 (June 2009). "大馬華社遊走於簡繁之間" (in الصينية). Yazhou Zhoukan. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  90. ^ Zhou, Minglang (24 October 2012). Multilingualism in China : the politics of writing reforms for minority languages, 1949–2002. Berlin. ISBN 9783110924596. OCLC 868954061.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  91. ^ Where cultures meet; a cross-cultural comparison of business meeting styles. Hogeschool van Amsterdam. p. 69. ISBN 978-90-79646-17-3.
  92. ^ "Japanese Business Structures". World Business Culture (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). 31 July 2019. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  93. ^ أ ب "Japanese Culture - Business Culture". Cultural Atlas (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  94. ^ Timothy Book; Hy V.. Luong (1999). Culture and economy: the shaping of capitalism in eastern Asia. University of Michigan Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-472-08598-9. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
  95. ^ أ ب AsialinkBusiness. "Korean business culture and etiquette". Asialink Business (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  96. ^ AsialinkBusiness. "Understanding the concept of 'guanxi'". Asialink Business (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  97. ^ "Guanxi: What it is, History, How it Works, FAQ". Investopedia (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  98. ^ "Vietnamese Culture - Business Culture". Cultural Atlas (in الإنجليزية). 2016. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
  99. ^ "Business culture in Viet Nam". my.nzte.govt.nz. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
  100. ^ Li, Jin (2016-04-02). "Humility in learning: A Confucian perspective *". Journal of Moral Education (in الإنجليزية). 45 (2): 147–165. doi:10.1080/03057240.2016.1168736. ISSN 0305-7240. S2CID 148115682.
  101. ^ Cheng, Stephen K. K. (1990). "Understanding the Culture and Behaviour of East Asians — A Confucian Perspective". Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (in الإنجليزية). 24 (4): 510–515. doi:10.3109/00048679009062907. ISSN 0004-8674. PMID 2073227. S2CID 8389994.
  102. ^ "Japanese Culture - Core Concepts". Cultural Atlas (in الإنجليزية). 2021. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
  103. ^ "Vietnamese Culture - Core Concepts". Cultural Atlas (in الإنجليزية). 2016. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
  104. ^ Aiko Ikeo (4 January 2002). Economic Development in Twentieth-Century East Asia: The International Context. Taylor & Francis. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-203-02704-2.
  105. ^ أ ب Compare: J. James W. Harrington; Barney Warf (1995). Industrial Location: Principles, Practice, and Policy. Routledge. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-415-10479-1. As the textile industry began to abandon places with high labor costs in the western industrialized world, it began to sprout up in a variety of Third World locations, in particular the famous 'Four Tiger' nations of East Asia: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Textiles were particularly important in the early industrialization of South Korea, while garment production was more significant to Hong Kong.
  106. ^ Pham, Peter. "What Is South Korea's Secret Weapon?". Forbes (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  107. ^ "South Korea's Chaebol". Bloomberg.com (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  108. ^ "Why South Korea risks following Japan into economic stagnation". Australian Financial Review. 21 August 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  109. ^ Abe, Naoki (12 February 2010). "Japan's Shrinking Economy". Brookings. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  110. ^ "The rise and demise of Asia's four little dragons". South China Morning Post. 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  111. ^ "YPs' Guide To: Southeast Asia—How Tiger Cubs Are Becoming Rising Tigers". spe.org. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  112. ^ (in en)My thoughts on Cantonese as a Viet, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5NNPaJF2_7Q, retrieved on 2023-11-10 
  113. ^ "The story behind Viet Nam's miracle growth". World Economic Forum. 11 September 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  114. ^ "China Is Now the World's Largest Economy. We Shouldn't Be Shocked". Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  115. ^ Baker, Dean (2020-12-26). "China Has the World's Largest Economy: Get Over It". Center for Economic and Policy Research (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  116. ^ أ ب ت Henshall, Kenneth G. (2004). "A History of Japan" (PDF). SpringerLink (in الإنجليزية). doi:10.1057/9780230502925. ISBN 978-1-4039-1272-5.
  117. ^ https://www.lehigh.edu/~rfw1/courses/1999/spring/ir163/Papers/pdf/kwk2.pdf
  118. ^ Lewis, Michael, ed. (2017). 'History Wars' and Reconciliation in Japan and Korea (PDF). doi:10.1057/978-1-137-54103-1. ISBN 978-1-137-54102-4.
  119. ^ Kim, Ji Young (2014). "Escaping the Vicious Cycle: Symbolic Politics and History Disputes Between South Korea and Japan". Asian Perspective. 38 (1): 31–60. doi:10.1353/apr.2014.0001. ISSN 2288-2871. S2CID 145641537.
  120. ^ أ ب Woodside, Alexander (2006-05-30) (in en), Lost Modernities, Harvard University Press, pp. 1–16, doi:10.4159/9780674045347-intro, ISBN 978-0-674-04534-7, https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/9780674045347-intro/html, retrieved on 2023-10-30 
  121. ^ Kang, David C.; Nguyen, Dat X.; Fu, Ronan Tse-min; Shaw, Meredith (2019). "War, Rebellion, and Intervention under Hierarchy: Vietnam–China Relations, 1365 to 1841". Journal of Conflict Resolution (in الإنجليزية). 63 (4): 896–922. doi:10.1177/0022002718772345. ISSN 0022-0027. S2CID 158733115.
  122. ^ https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125944394.pdf
  123. ^ "The China Factor in Vietnam's Multidirectional Foreign Policy". thediplomat.com (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  124. ^ Tamamoto, Masaru (2005). "How Japan Imagines China and Sees Itself". World Policy Journal. 22 (4): 55–62. doi:10.1215/07402775-2006-1002. ISSN 0740-2775. JSTOR 40209995.
  125. ^ Youn, Dae-Yong (2014). "The Loss of Vietnam: Korean Views of Vietnam in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries". Journal of Vietnamese Studies. 9 (1): 62–95. doi:10.1525/vs.2014.9.1.62. JSTOR 10.1525/vs.2014.9.1.62.
  126. ^ أ ب Park, Joon-woo (2012). "Korea and Vietnam: the Bilateral Relations" (PDF): 1–5 – via Shorenstein APARC, Stanford University. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  127. ^ Harrison, Mark; Yim, Sung Vin (2017). "War on Two Fronts: The Fight against Parasites in Korea and Vietnam". Med Hist. 61 (3): 401–423. doi:10.1017/mdh.2017.35. PMC 5471985. PMID 28604294.
  128. ^ "My decade watching the Korean peninsula: the delicacy of peace | Lowy Institute". www.lowyinstitute.org (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  129. ^ "The ups and downs of the Vietnam–North Korea relationship | Lowy Institute". www.lowyinstitute.org (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  130. ^ "Caution needed in developing defense ties with Vietnam, North Korea's comrade". koreatimes (in الإنجليزية). 2023-07-03. Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  131. ^ Owen, Norman G., Chandler, David. The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia (p. 107). [University of Hawaiʻi Press University of Hawaiʻi Press], 2005. ISBN 0-8248-2841-0
  132. ^ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Abe no Nakamaro, "Japan Encyclopedia, p. 3.
  133. ^ Japan and Vietnam - Archival Records on Our History (Joint Project Celebrating the 45th Anniversary of Japan-Viet Nam Diplomatic Relations) (2018). "Japan and Vietnam § Early Associations" (in الإنجليزية). National Archives of Japan. Retrieved 4 October 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  134. ^ "East Asian Tensions and the Lessons From Hanoi". thediplomat.com (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 2023-10-30.
  135. ^ Do, Thuy T.; Dinh, Julia Luong (2018), Tsvetov, Anton; Le, Hong Hiep, eds., Vietnam–Japan Relations: Moving beyond Economic Cooperation?, Lectures, Workshops, and Proceedings of International Conferences, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, pp. 96–116, ISBN 978-981-4818-15-5, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/vietnams-foreign-policy-under-doi-moi/vietnamjapan-relations-moving-beyond-economic-cooperation/6C0F13C3AA3D3870F98041993DA24716, retrieved on 2023-10-30 
  136. ^ "Vietnamese trainee worker in Japan recalls violence, struggle to switch jobs". Mainichi Daily News (in الإنجليزية). 2023-10-26. Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  137. ^ "Japan is no longer an attractive destination for Vietnamese workers". East Asia Forum (in الإنجليزية). 2023-09-06. Retrieved 2023-11-08.
  138. ^ Chung, Jae Ho (2012). "Korean Views of Korea-China Relations: Evolving Perceptions and Upcoming Challenges". Asian Perspective. 36 (2): 219–236. doi:10.1353/apr.2012.0008. ISSN 2288-2871. S2CID 140590108.
  139. ^ Benn, Charles (2002). China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang dynasty. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517665-0.

Sources

External links

تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=المجال_الثقافي_الصيني&oldid=4059792"