العلوم العصبية

لمعلومات عن the journal، انظر Neuroscience (journal).
"Brain science" redirects here. For other aspects of brain science, see cognitive science, cognitive psychology, neurology, and neuropsychology.
Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1899) of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum
جزء من سلسلة عن
علم الأحياء
202002 Laboratory instrument dna.svg
دراسة العضيات الحية
المكونات الرئيسية
التخصصات الفرعية
الأبحاث
التطبيقات

العلوم العصبية Neuroscience هي الحقل الذي يدرس و يتعامل مع البنى العصبية ، الوظائف العصبية ، التطور العصبي ، علم الجينات ، الكيمياء الحيوية ، الفيزيولوجيا ، علم الأدوية ، إضافة إلى علم الأمراض العصبي .

يطلق عليه أيضا اسم البيولوجيا العصبية حيث يندرج ضمن الطب و يدرس الظواهر المخية. فقد أكتشف مثلا أن عدد الخلايا المخية لا يتغير تقريبا مع الزمن ولكن الذي يتغيير هو كيفية تواصل و تلاحم هذه الخلايا. فكلما درب المرء نفسه و أجهد دماغه بالتفكير كلما زاد عدد الوصلات و إلتحامها و هو ما يؤدي إلى مقدرة أكبر على الإستيعاب و الذكاء و العكس بالعكس.

الدراسة البيولوجية للدماغ البشري يشكل أساس هذا الحقل المتداخل الذي يتضمن العديد من مستويات الدراسة ، من المستوى الجزيئي إلى المستوى الخلوي (العصبونات المفردة) ، إلى مستوى التجمعات الصغيرة نسبيا من العصبونات مثل cortical columns ، و الجمل الفرعية الأكثر تعقيدا مثل ساحات الإدراك البصري visual perception ، و حتى الجمل العصبية الضخمة مثل القشرة المخية cerebral cortex و المخيخ cerebral cortex كأعلى مستويات التعقيد ضمن الجهاز العصبي .

في المستويات العالية من التعقيد ، تصبح طرق البحث العصبية مندمجة مع علوم الإدراك cognitive science لتشكل ما يمكن تسميته علوم عصبية إدراكية cognitive neuroscience ، و هو عبارة عن تخصص أول من تحدث به علماء النفس الإدراكي cognitive psychologists ، لكنه أصبح الأن تخصصا منفردا تتم خلاله الكثير من الأبحاث و الدراسات . الكثير من الباحثين يعتقد أن العلوم العصبية الإدراكية تشكل طريقة بحث علمية أدنى-اعلى (من المستوى الأبسط إلى الأعقد) bottom-up approach لفهم العقل و الوعي ، و هذا يكمل الطريقة أعلى-أدنى (من المستوى الأعقد إلى الأبسط) the top-down approach التي يتصف بها علم النفس.

Drawing of the cells in the chicken cerebellum by S. Ramón y Cajal

من ضمن مجالات العلوم العصبية حقول متنوعة مختلفة مثل :

stained neuron
Animation of a stack of vertical MRI sections of a normal adult human brain

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

التاريخ

المقالة الرئيسية: History of neuroscience
Illustration from Gray's Anatomy (1918) of a lateral view of the human brain, featuring the hippocampus among other neuroanatomical features

The earliest study of the nervous system dates to ancient Egypt. Trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull for the purpose of curing head injuries or mental disorders, or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the Neolithic period. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.[1]

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."[2]

The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.[3] Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.[4] Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.[5] This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.[6]

Abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius (1514–1564), René Descartes (1596–1650), Thomas Willis (1621–1675) and Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

The Golgi stain first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.

Luigi Galvani's pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In 1843 Emil du Bois-Reymond demonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,[7] whose speed Hermann von Helmholtz proceeded to measure,[8] and in 1875 Richard Caton found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.[9] Adolf Beck published in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.[10] Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s. The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.[11] Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain.

In parallel with this research, in 1815 Jean Pierre Flourens induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients by Marc Dax in 1836 and Paul Broca in 1865 suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph Gall's theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex.[12][13] The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through neuroimaging techniques, still uses the Brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map (referring to the study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[14]

During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field.[15] Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh.[16] This was followed by the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School, which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.[17]

3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the Natural History Museum, London

In the process of treating epilepsy, Wilder Penfield produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain.[18][19] He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man.[20] Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the cortical homunculus.[21]

The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for the transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "action potentials", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris–Lecar model. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation.

As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, the International Brain Research Organization was founded in 1961,[22] the International Society for Neurochemistry in 1963,[23] the European Brain and Behaviour Society in 1968,[24] and the Society for Neuroscience in 1969.[25] Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to applied disciplines as neuroeconomics,[26] neuroeducation,[27] neuroethics,[28] and neurolaw.[29]

Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.[30]


علم الأعصاب الحديث

المقالة الرئيسية: Outline of neuroscience
Human nervous system

The scientific study of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed.

For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other in neural circuits, and networks.

The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species—including all vertebrates—the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.[31]

Due to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.[32]

Making sense of the nervous system's dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. Ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. Analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. The specific topics that form the main focus of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in electron microscopy, computer science, electronics, functional neuroimaging, and genetics and genomics have all been major drivers of progress.

Advances in the classification of brain cells have been enabled by electrophysiological recording, single-cell genetic sequencing, and high-quality microscopy, which have combined into a single method pipeline called patch-sequencing in which all three methods are simultaneously applied using miniature tools.[33] The efficiency of this method and the large amounts of data that is generated has allowed researchers to make some general conclusions about cell types; for example that the human and mouse brain have different versions of fundamentally the same cell types.[34]

Molecular and cellular neuroscience

المقالة الرئيسية: Molecular neuroscience and Cellular neuroscience
Photograph of a stained neuron in a chicken embryo

Basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions.[35] The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.[36]

Questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Neurites are thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials). Somas are the cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus.[37]

Another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of the development of the nervous system.[38] Questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, synapse formation and the implication of fractones in neural stem cells,[39][40] differentiation of neurons and glia (neurogenesis and gliogenesis), and neuronal migration.[41]

Computational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes, on the cellular level (Computational Neurogenetic Modeling (CNGM) can also be used to model neural systems).[42]

Neural circuits and systems

المقالة الرئيسية: Neural circuit and Systems neuroscience
Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).

Systems neuroscience research centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions of large-scale brain networks, or functionally-connected systems within the brain. Alongside brain development, systems neuroscience also focuses on how the structure and function of the brain enables or restricts the processing of sensory information, using learned mental models of the world, to motivate behavior.

Questions in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory.[43] In other words, this area of research studies how connections are made and morphed in the brain, and the effect it has on human sensation, movement, attention, inhibitory control, decision-making, reasoning, memory formation, reward, and emotion regulation.[44]

Specific areas of interest for the field include observations of how the structure of neural circuits effect skill acquisition, how specialized regions of the brain develop and change (neuroplasticity), and the development of brain atlases, or wiring diagrams of individual developing brains.[45]

The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors.[46] Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively.[47] Despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complex cognitive processes and behaviors is still poorly understood.[48]

Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience

المقالة الرئيسية: Behavioral neuroscience and Cognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), EEG, MEG, electrophysiology, optogenetics and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology.[49] Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea of memory as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.[50]

Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences, as well as with nascent interdisciplinary fields. Examples of such alliances include neuroeconomics, decision theory, social neuroscience, and neuromarketing to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated with narrative transportation into stories about energy efficiency.[51]

Computational neuroscience

المقالة الرئيسية: Computational neuroscience

Questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such as development, structure, and cognitive functions of the brain. Research in this field utilizes mathematical models, theoretical analysis, and computer simulation to describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. For example, biological neuron models are mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both the behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics of neural networks. Computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience.

Neuroscience and medicine

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Clinical neuroscience

للمزيد من المعلومات: Clinical neuroscience

Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.[52]

Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems.[53]

الأبحاث الانتقالية

للمزيد من المعلومات: Translational research and Translational neuroscience
An MRI of a male's head showing benign familial macrocephaly (head circumference > 60 cm)

Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. For example, brain imaging enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time.[54]

Integrative neuroscience describes the effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. For example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders.[55]

Another important area of translational research is brain–computer interfaces (BCIs), or machines that are able to communicate and influence the brain. They are currently being researched for their potential to repair neural systems and restore certain cognitive functions.[56] However, some ethical considerations have to be dealt with before they are accepted.[57][58]

الفروع الرئيسية

Current neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields.

الفرع المواضيع الرئيسية الطرق التجريبية والنظرية
Molecular and Cellular neuroscience behavioral genetics, neurocytology, glia, protein trafficking, ion channel, synapse, action potential, neurotransmitters, neuroimmunology PCR, immunohistochemistry, patch clamp, voltage clamp, molecular cloning, gene knockout, biochemical assays, linkage analysis, fluorescent in situ hybridization, Southern blots, DNA microarray, green fluorescent protein, calcium imaging, two-photon microscopy, HPLC, microdialysis
Behavioral neuroscience biological psychology, circadian rhythms, neuroendocrinology, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neurotransmitters, homeostasis, dimorphic sexual-behavior, motor control, sensory processing, photo reception, organizational/activational effects of hormones, drug/alcohol effects animal models (gene knockout), in situ hybridization, golgi stain, fMRI, immunohistochemistry, functional genomics, PET, pattern recognition, EEG, MEG
Systems neuroscience primary visual cortex, perception, audition, sensory integration, population coding, Pain and nociception, spontaneous and evoked activity, color vision, حاسة الشم, تذوق, motor system, spinal cord, نوم, homeostasis, arousal, attention single unit recording, intrinsic signal imaging, microstimulation, voltage sensitive dyes, fMRI, patch clamp, genomics, training awake behaving animals, local field potential, ROC, cortical cooling, calcium imaging, two-photon microscopy
Developmental neuroscience axon guidance, neural crest, growth factors, growth cone, neuromuscular junction, cell proliferation, neuronal differentiation, cell survival and apoptosis, synaptic formation, motor differentiation, injury and regeneration Xenopus oocyte, protein chemistry, genomics, Drosophila, Hox gene
Cognitive neuroscience attention, cognitive control, behavioral genetics, decision making, emotion, language, memory, motivation, motor learning, perception, sexual behavior, social neuroscience experimental designs from cognitive psychology, psychometrics, EEG, MEG, fMRI, PET, SPECT, single unit recording, human genetics
Theoretical and computational neuroscience cable theory, Hodgkin-Huxley model, شبكات عصبية، voltage-gated currents, Hebbian learning Markov chain Monte Carlo, simulated annealing, high performance computing, partial differential equations, self-organizing nets, pattern recognition, swarm intelligence
Diseases and aging dementia, peripheral neuropathy, spinal cord injury, autonomic nervous system, depression, anxiety, Parkinson's disease, addiction, memory loss clinical trials, neuropharmacology, deep brain stimulation, neurosurgery
Neural engineering Neuroprosthetic, brain-computer interface
Neurolinguistics language, Broca's area, generative grammar, language acquisition, syntax
دراسات علم الأعصاب Neuroscience education: undergraduate models, best practices, interface of neuroscience with all liberal arts disciplines, علم الأعصاب والمجتمع, فلسفة علم الأعصاب, interdisciplinary research, علم الأعصاب والثقافة العامة, علم الأعصاب والإعلام

Note: In 1990s, neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp coined the term "affective neuroscience"[59] to emphasize that emotion research should be a branch of neurosciences, distinguishable from the nearby fields like cognitive neuroscience or behavioral neuroscience. More recently, the social aspect of the emotional brain has been integrated in what is called "social-affective neuroscience".

There has also been some research published arguing that some of fair play and the Golden Rule may be stated and rooted in terms of neuroscientific and neuroethical principles.[60]

Major Themes of Research

Neuroscience research from different areas can also be seen as focusing on a set of specific themes and questions. (Some of these are taken from http://www.northwestern.edu/nuin/fac/index.htm)

Allied and Overlapping Fields

Neuroscience, by its very interdiciplinary nature, overlaps with and encompasses many different subjects. Below is a list of related subjects and fields.

Future directions

المقالة الرئيسية: Unsolved problems in neuroscience

انظر أيضاً


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الهامش

Citations

  1. ^ Mohamed W (2008). "The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: Neuroscience in Ancient Egypt". IBRO History of Neuroscience. Archived from the original on 2014-07-06. Retrieved 2014-07-06.
  2. ^ Herodotus (2009) [440 BCE]. The Histories: Book II (Euterpe). Translated by George Rawlinson.
  3. ^ Breitenfeld, T.; Jurasic, M. J.; Breitenfeld, D. (September 2014). "Hippocrates: the forefather of neurology". Neurological Sciences. 35 (9): 1349–1352. doi:10.1007/s10072-014-1869-3. ISSN 1590-3478. PMID 25027011. S2CID 2002986.
  4. ^ Plato (2009) [360 BCE]. Timaeus. Translated by George Rawlinson.
  5. ^ Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 3–17. ISBN 978-0-19-514694-3.
  6. ^ Freemon, F. R. (23 Sep 2009). "Galen's ideas on neurological function". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 3 (4): 263–271. doi:10.1080/09647049409525619. ISSN 0964-704X. PMID 11618827.
  7. ^ Finkelstein, Gabriel (2013). Emil du Bois-Reymond: Neuroscience, Self, and Society in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press. pp. 72–74, 89–95. ISBN 9780262019507.
  8. ^ Harrison, David W. (2015). Brain Asymmetry and Neural Systems Foundations in Clinical Neuroscience and Neuropsychology. Springer International Publishing. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-3-319-13068-2.
  9. ^ "Caton, Richard - The electric currents of the brain". echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de. Retrieved 2018-12-21.
  10. ^ Coenen, Anton; Edward Fine; Oksana Zayachkivska (2014). "Adolf Beck: A Forgotten Pioneer In Electroencephalography". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 23 (3): 276–286. doi:10.1080/0964704x.2013.867600. PMID 24735457. S2CID 205664545.
  11. ^ Guillery, R (Jun 2005). "Observations of synaptic structures: origins of the neuron doctrine and its current status". Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 360 (1458): 1281–307. doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1459. PMC 1569502. PMID 16147523.
  12. ^ Greenblatt SH (1995). "Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century". Neurosurgery. 37 (4): 790–805. doi:10.1227/00006123-199510000-00025. PMID 8559310.
  13. ^ Bear MF; Connors BW; Paradiso MA (2001). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-3944-3.
  14. ^ Kandel ER; Schwartz JH; Jessel TM (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.
  15. ^ Cowan, W.M.; Harter, D.H.; Kandel, E.R. (2000). "The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 23: 345–346. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343. PMID 10845068.
  16. ^ Squire, Larry R. (1996). "James L. McGaugh". The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography. Vol. 4. Washington DC: Society for Neuroscience. p. 410. ISBN 0916110516. OCLC 36433905.
  17. ^ "History - Department of Neurobiology". Archived from the original on 2019-09-27. Retrieved 2017-10-17.
  18. ^ Wilder Penfield redrew the map of the brain — by opening the heads of living patients
  19. ^ Kumar, R.; Yeragani, V. K. (2011). "Penfield – A great explorer of psyche-soma-neuroscience". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 53 (3): 276–278. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.86826. PMC 3221191. PMID 22135453.
  20. ^ Schott, G. D. (1993). "Penfield's homunculus: A note on cerebral cartography" (PDF). Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 56 (4): 329–333. doi:10.1136/jnnp.56.4.329. PMC 1014945. PMID 8482950.
  21. ^ Cazala, Fadwa; Vienney, Nicolas; Stoléru, Serge (2015-03-10). "The cortical sensory representation of genitalia in women and men: a systematic review". Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology. 5: 26428. doi:10.3402/snp.v5.26428. PMC 4357265. PMID 25766001.
  22. ^ "History of IBRO". International Brain Research Organization. 2010.
  23. ^ The Beginning Archived أبريل 21, 2012 at the Wayback Machine, International Society for Neurochemistry
  24. ^ "About EBBS". European Brain and Behaviour Society. 2009. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
  25. ^ "About SfN". Society for Neuroscience.
  26. ^ "How can neuroscience inform economics?" (PDF). Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences.
  27. ^ Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC
  28. ^ "What is Neuroethics?". www.neuroethicssociety.org. Retrieved 2019-02-22.
  29. ^ Petoft, Arian (2015-01-05). "Neurolaw: A brief introduction". Iranian Journal of Neurology. 14 (1): 53–58. ISSN 2008-384X. PMC 4395810. PMID 25874060.
  30. ^ Fan, Xue; Markram, Henry (2019-05-07). "A Brief History of Simulation Neuroscience". Frontiers in Neuroinformatics. 13: 32. doi:10.3389/fninf.2019.00032. ISSN 1662-5196. PMC 6513977. PMID 31133838.
  31. ^ U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Brain basics: genes at work in the brain. Date last modified: 2018-12-27. [1] Archived 2019-02-07 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved Feb. 4, 2019.
  32. ^ The United States Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. "Chapter 2: The Fundamentals of Mental Health and Mental Illness" pp 38 [2] Archived 2018-10-26 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved May 21, 2012
  33. ^ Lipovsek, Marcela; Bardy, Cedric; Cadwell, Cathryn R.; et al. (3 February 2021). "Patch-seq: Past, Present, and Future". The Journal of Neuroscience. 41 (5): 937–946. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1653-20.2020. PMC 7880286. PMID 33431632.
  34. ^ Hodge, Rebecca D.; Bakken, Trygve E.; Miller, Jeremy A.; et al. (5 September 2019). "Conserved cell types with divergent features in human versus mouse cortex". Nature. 573 (7772): 61–68. Bibcode:2019Natur.573...61H. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1506-7. PMC 6919571. PMID 31435019.
  35. ^ "Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience | UCSB Neuroscience | UC Santa Barbara". Neuroscience.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  36. ^ From Molecules to Networks, Third Edition. Academic Press. 2014. ISBN 9780123971791.
  37. ^ Flynn, Kevin C (July 2013). "The cytoskeleton and neurite initiation". BioArchitecture. 3 (4): 86–109. doi:10.4161/bioa.26259. PMC 4201609. PMID 24002528.
  38. ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "Neural Development". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4 ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 9780815332183. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  39. ^ Nascimento, Marcos Assis; Sorokin, Lydia; Coelho-Sampaio, Tatiana (2018-04-18). "Fractone Bulbs Derive from Ependymal Cells and Their Laminin Composition Influence the Stem Cell Niche in the Subventricular Zone". Journal of Neuroscience (in الإنجليزية). 38 (16): 3880–3889. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3064-17.2018. ISSN 0270-6474. PMC 6705924. PMID 29530987.
  40. ^ Mercier, Frederic (2016). "Fractones: extracellular matrix niche controlling stem cell fate and growth factor activity in the brain in health and disease". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (in الإنجليزية). 73 (24): 4661–4674. doi:10.1007/s00018-016-2314-y. ISSN 1420-682X. PMC 11108427. PMID 27475964. S2CID 28119663. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmc= value (help)
  41. ^ Mercier, Frederic; Arikawa-Hirasawa, Eri (2012). "Heparan sulfate niche for cell proliferation in the adult brain". Neuroscience Letters (in الإنجليزية). 510 (2): 67–72. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2011.12.046. PMID 22230891. S2CID 27352770.
  42. ^ "Neuroscience Research Areas". NYU Grossman School of Medicine. NYU Langone Health Neuroscience Institute. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  43. ^ Tau, Gregory Z; Peterson, Bradley S (January 2010). "Normal Development of Brain Circuits". Neuropsychopharmacology. 35 (1): 147–168. doi:10.1038/npp.2009.115. PMC 3055433. PMID 19794405.
  44. ^ Menon, Vinod (October 2011). "Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 15 (10): 483–506. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.003. PMID 21908230. S2CID 26653572. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
  45. ^ Menon, Vinod (2017). "Systems neuroscience". In Hopkins, Brian; Barr, Ronald G. (eds.). Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  46. ^ Craighead, W. Edward; Nemeroff, Charles B., eds. (2004). "Neuroethology". The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science. Wiley. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  47. ^ Solberg Nes, Lise; Segerstrom, Suzanne C. "Psychoneuroimmunology". In Spielberger, Charles Donald (ed.). Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (1st ed.). Elsevier Science & Technology. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  48. ^ Kaczmarek, Leonard K; Nadel, L. (2005). "Neuron Doctrine". Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (1st ed.). Wiley. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  49. ^ Aragona M, Kotzalidis GD, Puzella A. (2013) The many faces of empathy, between phenomenology and neuroscience Archived 2020-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4:5-12
  50. ^ Ofengenden, Tzofit (2014). "Memory formation and belief" (PDF). Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences. 7 (2): 34–44.
  51. ^ Gordon, Ross; Ciorciari, Joseph; Van Laer, Tom (2018). "Using EEG to examine the role of attention, working memory, emotion, and imagination in narrative transportation" (PDF). European Journal of Marketing. 52: 92–117. doi:10.1108/EJM-12-2016-0881. SSRN 2892967.
  52. ^ "Neurologic Diseases". medlineplus.gov. National Library of Medicine (NIH). Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  53. ^ "Neurosciences". A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia (in الإنجليزية). Johns Creek (GA): Ebix, inc. 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  54. ^ Lepage M (2010). "Research at the Brain Imaging Centre". Douglas Mental Health University Institute. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012.
  55. ^ Gordon E (2003). "Integrative neuroscience". Neuropsychopharmacology. 28 (Suppl 1): S2-8. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300136. PMID 12827137.
  56. ^ Krucoff, Max O.; Rahimpour, Shervin; Slutzky, Marc W.; Edgerton, V. Reggie; Turner, Dennis A. (27 December 2016). "Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 584. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00584. PMC 5186786. PMID 28082858.
  57. ^ Haselager, Pim; Vlek, Rutger; Hill, Jeremy; Nijboer, Femke (1 November 2009). "A note on ethical aspects of BCI". Neural Networks. 22 (9): 1352–1357. doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2009.06.046. hdl:2066/77533. PMID 19616405.
  58. ^ Nijboer, Femke; Clausen, Jens; Allison, Brendan Z.; Haselager, Pim (2013). "The Asilomar Survey: Stakeholders' Opinions on Ethical Issues Related to Brain–Computer Interfacing". Neuroethics. 6 (3): 541–578. doi:10.1007/s12152-011-9132-6. PMC 3825606. PMID 24273623.
  59. ^ Panksepp, J., 1990 - A role for “affective neuroscience” in understanding stress: The case of separation distress circuitry. In: Puglisi-Allegra, S. and Oliverio, A., Editors, 1990, Psychobiology of stress, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 41–58.
  60. ^ Pfaff, Donald W., "The Neuroscience of Fair Play: Why We (Usually) Follow the Golden Rule", Dana Press, The Dana Foundation, New York, 2007. ISBN 9781932594270

Textbooks

  • Bear, M.F. (2001). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. Baltimore: Lippincott. ISBN 0-7817-3944-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Kandel, ER (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8385-7701-6. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Squire, L. et al. (2003). Fundamental Neuroscience, 2nd edition. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-660303-0
  • Byrne and Roberts (2004). From Molecules to Networks. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-148660-5
  • Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-618621-9
  • Siegel et al. (2005). Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-088397-X
  • Rieke, F. et al. (1999). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT Press; Reprint edition ISBN 0-262-68108-0

Online textbooks

  • Neuroscience 2nd ed. Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
  • Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects 6th ed. by George J. Siegel, Bernard W. Agranoff, R. Wayne Albers, Stephen K. Fisher, Michael D. Uhler, editors. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.

Popular works

  • Andreasen, Nancy C. (2004). Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195145090. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, Avon Books. ISBN 0-399-13894-3 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-380-72647-5 (Paperback)
  • Gardner, H. (1976). The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. New York, Vintage Books, 1976 ISBN 0-394-71946-8
  • Goldstein, K. (2000). The Organism. New York, Zone Books. ISBN 0-942299-96-5 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-942299-97-3 (Paperback)
  • Llinas R. (2001). I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-12233-2 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-262-62163-0 (Paperback)
  • Luria, A. R. (1997). The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-224-00792-0 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-674-54625-3 (Paperback)
  • Luria, A. R. (1998). The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. New York, Basic Books, Inc. ISBN 0-674-57622-5
  • Medina, J. (2008). Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School.Seattle, Pear Press. ISBN 0-979-777704 (Hardcover with DVD)
  • Pinker, S. (1999). How the Mind Works. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31848-6
  • Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking Adult. ISBN 0-670-03151-8
  • Ramachandran, V.S. (1998). Phantoms in the Brain. New York, New York Harper Collins. ISBN 0-688-15247-3 (Paperback)
  • Rose, S. (2006). 21st Century Brain: Explaining, Mending & Manipulating the Mind ISBN 0099429772 (Paperback)
  • Sacks, O. The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. Summit Books ISBN 0-671-55471-9 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-06-097079-0 (Paperback)
  • Sacks, O. (1990). Awakenings. New York, Vintage Books. (See also Oliver Sacks) ISBN 0-671-64834-9 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-06-097368-4 (Paperback)
  • Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

Notes From Online Courses

وصلات خارجية

مشاع المعرفة فيه ميديا متعلقة بموضوع [[commons: Category:neuroscience

| neuroscience

]].
تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=العلوم_العصبية&oldid=4077721"