منطقة التبت الذاتية

Coordinates: 31°42′20″N 86°56′25″E / 31.70556°N 86.94028°E / 31.70556; 86.94028
(تم التحويل من Tibet Autonomous Region)
هذا المقال هو عن المنطقة الادارية في الصين. إذا كنت تريد المنطقة العرقية-الثقافية، انظر التبت. إذا كنت تريد الاستخدامات الأخرى، انظر التبت (توضيح).
منطقة التبت الذاتية
شي‌زانگ، منطقة ذاتية
بالصينية: 西藏自治区
بالتبتية: བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས།
منطقة ذاتية
الترجمة اللفظية بالـ Chinese
 • Simplified Chinese西藏自治区
 • Hanyu pinyinXīzàng Zìzhìqū
 • AbbreviationXZ / 藏 (Zàng)
Tibetan transcription(s)
 • Tibetan scriptབོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས།
 • Wylie translit.bod rang skyong ljongs
 • Tibetan pinyinPoi Ranggyong Jong
قصر پوتالا في لاسا
قصر پوتالا في لاسا
خريطة تبين موقع منطقة التبت الذاتية
خريطة تبين موقع منطقة التبت الذاتية
الإحداثيات: 31°42′20″N 86°56′25″E / 31.70556°N 86.94028°E / 31.70556; 86.94028
السمِيْمن الكلمة Tibat من أصل مُتنازع عليه.
العاصمةلاسا
أكبر مدينةXigazê
الأقسام5 prefecture-level cities، 2 prefectures، 6 districts، 68 ناحية، 692 بلدة
الحكومة
 • الأمينWang Junzheng
 • الرئيسLosang Jamcan
 • رئيس الحكومةYan Jinhai
 • رئيس CPPCC المحليPagbalha Geleg Namgyai
 • التمثيل في مجلس الشعب الوطني24 نائب
المساحة
[1]
 • الإجمالي1٬228٬400 كم² (474٬300 ميل²)
ترتيب المساحة2nd
التعداد
 (December 2014)[2]
 • الإجمالي3٬180٬000
 • الترتيب32nd
 • الكثافة2٫59/km2 (6٫7/sq mi)
 • ترتيب الكثافة33rd
الديمغرافيا
 • التركيبة العرقية90% Tibetan
8% Han
0.3% Monpa
0.3% Hui
0.2% others
 • اللغات واللهجاتالتبتية، صينية المندرين
ISO 3166 codeCN-54
GDP (2014)CNY 92.1 بليون
15 بليون دولار (32nd)
 - per capitaCNY 29,279
US$ 4,766 (28th)
HDI (2010)0.569[3] (medium) (31st)
الموقع الإلكترونيwww.Xizang.gov.cn
التبت
Tibet (Chinese and Tibetan).svg
"التبت" بالصينية "شي‌زانگ" (أعلى)
وبالتبتية "بود" (أسفل)
Chinese name
الصينية西藏
Hanyu PinyinXīzàng
المعنى الحرفي"Tsang" غربية
Tibet Autonomous Region
الصينية المبسطة西藏自治区
الصينية التقليدية西藏自治區
Hanyu PinyinXīzàng Zìzhìqū
Tibetan name
التبتيةབོད་
Manchu name
Manchu scriptᠸᠠᡵᡤᡳ
ᡩᡯᠠᠩ
Romanizationwargi Dzang
Mongolian name
Mongolianᠲᠢᠪᠧᠲ
Tibyet

منطقة التبت الذاتية (Tibet Autonomous Region ؛ TAR) أو شي‌زانگ، المنطقة الذاتية، وتسمى التبت أو شي‌زانگ، [note 1] ) هي منطقة ذاتية بمستوى مقاطعة في جمهورية الصين الشعبية في جنوب غرب الصين. وتتراكب مع المنطقتين التبتيتين التقليديتين أو-تسانگ و خام.

وقد تأسست رسمياً في 1965 لتحل محل منطقة التبت، التقسيم الإداري الذي ورثته جمهورية الصين الشعبية من جمهورية الصين (ROC)، بعد نحو 5 سنوات من طرد الكاشاگ على يد السلطات الشيوعية عقب الانتفاضة التبتية 1959، وبعد نحو 13 سنة من إدماج التبت في جمهورية الصين الشعبية في 1951.

الحدود الحالية لمنطقة التبت الذاتية تأسست عموماً في القرن الثامن عشر[4] وتضم نحو نصف التبت التاريخية، أو التبت العرقية-الثقافية. تغطي منطقة التبت الذاتية 1,200,000 كم² وهي ثاني أكبر تقسيم على مستوى مقاطعة في الصين حسب المساحة، بعد شين‌جيانگ. بسبب تضاريسها القاسية والوعرة، فهي ذات كثافة سكانية منخفضة حيث يزيد عدد سكانها قليلاً عن 3.6 مليون نسمة، وتبلغ الكثافة السكانية 3 أشخاص للكيلومتر الواحد.

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التاريخ

المقالة الرئيسية: تاريخ التبت

Yarlung kings founded the Tibetan Empire in 618. By the end of the 8th century, the empire reached its greatest extent. After a civil war, the empire broke up in 842. The royal lineage fragmented and ruled over small kingdoms such as Guge, Maryul and Nyingma. The Mongol Empire conquered Tibet in 1244 but granted the region a degree of political autonomy. Kublai Khan later incorporated Tibetans into his Yuan empire (1271–1368). The Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa became religious teacher to Kublai in the 1250s, and was made the head of the Tibetan region administration 1264ح.  1264.

لايزال علماء التاريخ المعاصرة يجادلون حول طبيعة العلاقات بين التبت وأسرة مينگ الصينية (1368-1644) وما إذا كان لمينگ السيادة على التبت[5][6][7] بعد الغزو المغولي للتبت ووضع التبت تحت حكم يوان الإداري في القرنين ال13 وال14. في حين ظلت التبت رسميا محمية من الصين وتحت حكم الإداري لأسرة تشينگ (1644-1912) منذ 1720، إلا أنه تم حل سلطانها خلال 1912-1950 ووضعها ضمن الصين الأصلية نتيجة ثورة شينهاي وتركيز الحكومة المركزية القتال ضد الغزو الياباني خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية. وكانت الأجزاء أخرى من التبت العرقية والثقافية (شرق خام وأمدو) أيضا تحت إدارة حكومة الأسرة الصينية منذ منتصف القرن الثامن عشر.[8]هذه الأجزاء تتوزع اليوم بين محافظات تشينگهاي وگانسو وسيتشوان ويونان. (انظر أيضا: محافظة شيكانگ)

في عام 1950، هزم جيش التحرير الشعبي الصيني الجيش التبتي في معركة وقعت بالقرب من مدينة شامدو. وفي عام 1951، وقع ممثلو التبت إتفاق 17 نقطة مع الحكومة الشعبية المركزية الصينية تؤكد سيادة الصين على التبت وإدماج التبت. تم التصديق على الاتفاق في لاسا بعد بضعة أشهر.[9][10] على الرغم من أن اتفاق ال17 نقطة وفر لإدارة الحكم الذاتي من قبل الدالاي لاما تم إنشاء "اللجنة التحضيرية لمنطقة الحكم الذاتي في التبت" (PCART) في عام 1955 وذلك كنظام مواز للإدارة يتبع مباشرة الحكم الشيوعي. ولكن الدلاي لاما فر إلى الهند في عام 1959 وتخلى عن اتفاق 17 نقطة. ثم تأسست منطقة التبت ذاتية الحكم في عام 1965 مما جعل التبت تقسيماً إدارياً يعادل وضع المحافظة الصينية.


الجغرافيا

المقالة الرئيسية: جغرافيا التبت

The Tibet Autonomous Region is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the highest region on earth. In northern Tibet elevations reach an average of over 4,572 metres (15,000 ft). Mount Everest is located on Tibet's border with Nepal.

Mount Everest

التبت هو اقليم يقع في جنوب غرب الصين وتقع حدوده مع اقليم كشمير ونيبال والهند وبورما وتركستان الشرقية إلى جانب عدة ولايات صينية, ويعد أعلى هضبة في العالم ولذلك يسمى ب "سقف العالم". وهذا الإقليم ذو أغلبية تبتية تدين بالبوذية، كما يدين بعض سكانه بالإسلام والكاثوليكية. وهو معترف به رسميا كأقليم يحظى بحكم ذاتي تحت السيادة الصينية،و عاصمته لاهاسا (لاسا), ومساحته حوالي مليون و220 ألف كيلو متر مربع ويعد 12.8% من مساحة الصين الكلية. أما التبت بالنسبة للتبتيين فهي التبت الكبرى التي تضم التبت الصينية إضافة إلى إقليم تشينخاي ومساحات واسعة من إقليم سيتشوان ومناطق أخرى تصل مساحتها إلى 5.2 مليون كيلو متر مربع، علماً بأن مساحة الصين تصل إلى نحو 6.9 ملايين كيلو متر مربع. ومن المعروف ان الصين من الدول التي تتميز بتعددية عرقية ويضم من بينها أتراك ومنغوليون والتاى والتبتيون وهم يشكلون كلهم حوالى 5% من سكان الصين, وأما الأغلبية الباقية من السكان فهم من عرق "الهان" الذين يتميزون بمستوى ثقافى واجتماعى أفضل من باقى الجماعات العرقية والتي من أجل ذلك تشعر بالكراهية تجاه الهان وهو أحد ابعاد ازمة التبت, فالحزب الشيوعى الصينى ذو الكوادر من الهان له سجل حافل بإساءة معاملة الأقليات. أيضاً الصين بها تعددية دينية حيث توجد الكونفوشية والتاوية والبوذية والإسلام والمسيحية وهذه الديانات بدورها تنقسم إلى طوائف وبالنسبة للتبت فإن سكانها يكونون جماعة اثنيه عاشت فيها منذ قرون ويعتنقون الديانة البوذية اللامية.


الحكم

انظر أيضاً: List of modern political leaders of Tibet and List of provincial leaders of the People's Republic of China

التقسيمات الادارية

المقالة الرئيسية: List of administrative divisions of the Tibet Autonomous Region and List of township-level divisions of the Tibet Autonomous Region

The Autonomous Region is divided into seven prefecture-level divisions: five prefecture-level cities and two prefectures. It is one of only a few provincial divisions which has retained the prefecture as a unit of local government.

These in turn are subdivided into a total of 68 counties and five districts (Chengguan, Doilungdêqên, Samzhubzê, Karub, Bayi, and Nêdong).

Administrative divisions of Tibet
Xizang prfc map.png
№ Division code[11] English name Tibetan Wylie transliteration
Tibetan pinyin 		Chinese Pinyin Area in km2[12] Population 2010[13] Seat Divisions[14]
المديريات Counties
  540000 Tibet
Autonomous Region 		བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས། bod rang skyong ljongs
Poi Ranggyongjong		 西藏自治区 Xīzàng Zìzhìqū 1228400.00 3,002,166 Lhasa 6 68
5 540100 لهاسا ལྷ་ས་གྲོང་ཁྱེར། lha sa grong khyer
Lhasa Chongkyir		 拉萨市 Lāsà Shì 29538.90 559,423 Chengguan District 2 6
4 540200 Shigatse / Xigazê གཞིས་ཀ་རྩེ་གྲོང་ཁྱེར། ggzhis ka rtse grong khyer
Xigazê Chongkyir		 日喀则市 Rìkāzé Shì 182066.26 703,292 Samzhubzê District 1 17
3 540300 Chamdo / Qamdo ཆབ་མདོ་གྲོང་ཁྱེར། chab mdo grong khyer
Qamdo Chongkyir		 昌都市 Chāngdū Shì 108872.30 657,505 Karub District 1 10
7 540400 Nyingchi ཉིང་ཁྲི་གྲོང་ཁྱེར། nying khri grong khyer
Nyingchi Chongkyir		 林芝市 Línzhī Shì 113964.79 195,109 Bayi District 1 6
6 540500 Shannan ལྷོ་ཁ་གྲོང་ཁྱེར། lho kha grong khyer
Lhoka Chongkyir		 山南市 Shānnán Shì 79287.84 328,990 Nêdong District 1 11
2 542400 Nagqu Prefecture ནག་ཆུ་ས་ཁུལ། nag chu sa khul
Nagqu Sakü		 那曲地区 Nàqū Dìqū 391816.63 462,382 Nagqu County 11
1 542500 Ngari Prefecture མངའ་རིས་ས་ཁུལ། mnga' ris sa khul
Ngari Sakü		 阿里地区 Ālǐ Dìqū 296822.62 95,465 Gar County 7
Yamdrok Lake
Namtso Lake

الديمغرافيا

التعداد التاريخي
YearPop.±%
1912[15] 1٬160٬000—    
1928[16] 372٬000−67.9%
1936-37[17] 372٬000+0.0%
1947[18] 1٬000٬000+168.8%
1954[19] 1٬273٬969+27.4%
1964[20] 1٬251٬225−1.8%
1982[21] 1٬892٬393+51.2%
1990[22] 2٬196٬010+16.0%
2000[23] 2٬616٬329+19.1%
2010[24] 3٬002٬166+14.7%
مقاطعة شي‌كانگ / Chuanbian SAR was established in 1923 from parts of Tibet / Lifan Yuan; dissolved in 1955 and parts were incorporated into Tibet AR.

بمتوسط شخصان في الكيلومتر المربع، تُعد التبت أقل كثافة سكانية بين كل المناطق الادارية الصينية على مستوى مقاطعة، ويرجع ذلك في معظمه إلى الطبيعة الجبلية الصعبة.[25]


In 2020 the Tibetan population was three million.[26] The ethnic Tibetans, comprising 86.0% of the population,[26] mainly adhere to Tibetan Buddhism and Bön, although there is an ethnic Tibetan Muslim community.[27] Other Muslim ethnic groups such as the Hui and the Salar have inhabited the region. There is also a tiny Tibetan Christian community in eastern Tibet. Smaller tribal groups such as the Monpa and Lhoba, who follow a combination of Tibetan Buddhism and spirit worship, are found mainly in the southeastern parts of the region.

Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic Tibetans. According to tradition the original ancestors of the Tibetan people, as represented by the six red bands in the Tibetan flag, are: the Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra. Other traditional ethnic groups with significant population or with the majority of the ethnic group reside in Tibet include Bai people, Blang, Bonan, Dongxiang, Han, Hui people, Lhoba, Lisu people, Miao, Mongols, Monguor (Tu people), Menba (Monpa), Mosuo, Nakhi, Qiang, Nu people, Pumi, Salar, and Yi people.

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition published between 1910 and 1911, the total population of the Tibetan capital of Lhasa, including the lamas in the city and vicinity, was about 30,000, and the permanent population also included Chinese families (about 2,000).[28]

Most Han people in the Tibet Autonomous Region (12.2% of the total population)[26] are recent migrants, because all of the Han were expelled from "Outer Tibet" (Central Tibet) following the British invasion until the establishment of the PRC.[29] Only 8% of Han people have household registration in TAR, others keep their household registration in place of origin.[30]

Tibetan scholars and exiles claim that, with the 2006 completion of the Qingzang Railway connecting the Tibet Autonomous Region to Qinghai Province, there has been an "acceleration" of Han migration into the region.[31] The Tibetan government-in-exile based in northern India asserts that the PRC is promoting the migration of Han workers and soldiers to Tibet to marginalize and assimilate the locals.[32]


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الدين

المقالة الرئيسية: الدين في التبت
الدين في التبت (تقديرات 2012)[33]
البوذية التبتية
  
 78.5%
Bon
  
 12.5%
Chinese religions and others
  
 8.58%
Islam[34]
  
 0.4%
Christianity
  
 0.02%
تمثال بوذا مايتريا في Tashilhunpo Monastery في Shigatse

The main religion in Tibet has been Buddhism since its outspread in the 8th century AD. Before the arrival of Buddhism, the main religion among Tibetans was an indigenous shamanic and animistic religion, Bon, which now comprises a sizeable minority and influenced the formation of Tibetan Buddhism.

According to estimates from the International Religious Freedom Report of 2012, most Tibetans (who comprise 91% of the population of the Tibet Autonomous Region) are adherents of Tibetan Buddhism, while a minority of 400,000 people are followers the native Bon or folk religions which share the image of Confucius (Tibetan: Kongtse Trulgyi Gyalpo) with Chinese folk religion, though in a different light.[35][36] According to some reports, the government of China has been promoting the Bon religion, linking it with Confucianism.[37]

Most of the Han Chinese who reside in Tibet practice their native Chinese folk religion (神道؛ shén dào؛ 'Way of the Gods'�). There is a Guandi Temple of Lhasa (拉萨关帝庙) where the Chinese god of war Guandi is identified with the cross-ethnic Chinese, Tibetan, Mongol and Manchu deity Gesar. The temple is built according to both Chinese and Tibetan architecture. It was first erected in 1792 under the Qing dynasty and renovated around 2013 after decades of disrepair.[38][39]

Built or rebuilt between 2014 and 2015 is the Guandi Temple of Qomolangma (Mount Everest), on Ganggar Mount, in Tingri County.[40][41]

There are four mosques in the Tibet Autonomous Region with approximately 4,000 to 5,000 Muslim adherents,[33] although a 2010 Chinese survey found a higher proportion of 0.4%.[34] There is a Catholic church with 700 parishioners, which is located in the traditionally Catholic community of Yanjing in the east of the region.[33]

حقوق الإنسان

المقالة الرئيسية: حقوق الإنسان في التبت
Chinese army division moving from Golmud to Lhasa

Before the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1951, Tibet was ruled by a theocracy[42] and had a caste-like social hierarchy.[43] Human rights in Tibet prior to its incorporation into the People's Republic of China differed considerably from those in the modern era. Due to tight control of press in mainland China, including the Tibet Autonomous Region,[44] it is difficult to accurately determine the scope of human rights abuses.[45]

Critics of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) say the CCP's official aim to eliminate "the three evils of separatism, terrorism and religious extremism" is used as a pretext for human rights abuses.[46] A 1992 Amnesty International report stated that judicial standards in the Tibet Autonomous Region were not up to "international standards". The report charged the CCP[47] government with keeping political prisoners and prisoners of conscience; ill-treatment of detainees, including torture, and inaction in the face of ill-treatment; the use of the death penalty; extrajudicial executions;[47][48] and forced abortion and sterilization.[49][50][51][52][53]

البلدات والقرى في التبت

للمزيد من المعلومات: List of populated places in the Tibet Autonomous Region

برنامج الإسكان المريخ

Beginning in 2006, 280,000 Tibetans who lived in traditional villages and as nomadic herdsmen have been forcefully relocated into villages and towns. In those areas, new housing was built and existing houses were remodelled to serve a total of 2 million people. Those living in substandard housing were required to dismantle their houses and remodel them to government standards. Much of the expense was borne by the residents themselves,[54] often through bank loans. The population transfer program, which was first implemented in Qinghai where 300,000 nomads were resettled, is called "Comfortable Housing", which is part of the "Build a New Socialist Countryside" program. Its effect on Tibetan culture has been criticized by exiles and human rights groups.[54] Finding employment is difficult for relocated persons who have only agrarian skills. Income shortfalls are offset by government support programs.[55] It was announced that in 2011 that 20,000 Communist Party cadres will be placed in the new towns.[54]

الاقتصاد

المقالة الرئيسية: اقتصاد التبت
تطور الناتج المحلي الإجمالي
Year GDP in
billions of yuan
1995 5.61
2000 11.78
2005 24.88
2010 50.75
2015 102.64
2021 208.18[56]
Source:[57]

From the 1951 Seventeen Point Agreement to 2003, life expectancy in Tibet increased from thirty-six years to sixty-seven years with infant mortality and absolute poverty declining steadily.[58]

The Tibetans traditionally depended upon agriculture for survival. Since the 1980s, however, other jobs such as taxi-driving and hotel retail work have become available in the wake of Chinese economic reform. In 2011, Tibet's GDP topped 60.5 billion yuan (US$9.60 billion), nearly more than seven times as big as the 11.78 billion yuan (US$1.47 billion) in 2000. Economic growth since the beginning of the 21st century has averaged over 10 percent a year.[25]

By 2022, the GDP of the region surpassed 213 billion yuan (US$31.7 billion in nominal), while GDP per capita reached CN¥ 58,438 (US$8,688 in nominal).[59] In 2022, Tibet's GDP per capita ranked 25th highest in China, as well as higher than any South Asian country except Maldives.[60] In 2008, Chinese news media reported that the per capita disposable incomes of urban and rural residents in Tibet averaged (CN¥ 12,482 (US$1,798) and CN¥ 3,176 (US$457) respectively.[61]

While traditional agriculture and animal husbandry continue to lead the area's economy, in 2005 the tertiary sector contributed more than half of its GDP growth, the first time it surpassed the area's primary industry.[62][63] Rich reserves of natural resources and raw materials have yet to lead to the creation of a strong secondary sector, due in large part to the province's inhospitable terrain, low population density, an underdeveloped infrastructure and the high cost of extraction.[25]

The collection of caterpillar fungus (Cordyceps sinensis, known in Tibetan as Yartsa Gunbu) in late spring / early summer is in many areas the most important source of cash for rural households. It contributes an average of 40% to rural cash income and 8.5% to the Tibet Autonomous Region's GDP.[64]

The re-opening of the Nathu La pass (on southern Tibet's border with India) should facilitate Sino-Indian border trade and boost Tibet's economy.[65]

The China Western Development policy was adopted in 2000 by the central government to boost economic development in western China, including the Tibet Autonomous Region.

التعليم

There are 4 universities and 3 special colleges in Tibet,[66] including Tibet University, Tibet University for Nationalities, Tibet Tibetan Medical University, Tibet Agricultural and Animal Husbandry College, Lhasa Teachers College, Tibet Police College and Tibet Vocational and Technical College.


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السياحة

Tourism is a key part of Tibet's economic income.

Foreign tourists were first permitted to visit the Tibet Autonomous Region in the 1980s. While the main attraction is the Potala Palace in Lhasa, there are many other popular tourist destinations including the Jokhang Temple, Namtso Lake, and Tashilhunpo Monastery.[67] Nonetheless, tourism in Tibet is still restricted for non-Chinese passport holders (including citizens of the Republic of China from Taiwan), and foreigners must apply for a Tibet Entry Permit to enter the region.

النقل

A 2019 white paper from The State Council Information Office of the People's Republic of China reported Tibet's road system has achieved a total of 118,800 km.[68]

المطارات

The civil airports in Tibet are Lhasa Gonggar Airport,[69] Qamdo Bangda Airport, Nyingchi Airport, and the Gunsa Airport.

Gunsa Airport in Ngari Prefecture began operations on 1 July 2010, to become the fourth civil airport in China's Tibet Autonomous Region.[70]

The Peace Airport for Xigazê was opened for civilian use on 30 October 2010.[71]

Announced in 2010, Nagqu Dagring Airport was expected to become the world's highest altitude airport, at 4,436 meters above sea level.[72] However, in 2015 it was reported that construction of the airport has been delayed due to the necessity to develop higher technological standards.[73]

السكك الحديدية

The Qinghai–Tibet Railway from Golmud to Lhasa was completed on 12 October 2005. It opened to regular trial service on 1 July 2006. Five pairs of passenger trains run between Golmud and Lhasa, with connections onward to Beijing, Chengdu, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Xining and Lanzhou. The line includes the Tanggula Pass, which, at 5,072 m (16,640 ft) above sea level, is the world's highest railway.

The Lhasa–Xigazê Railway branch from Lhasa to Xigazê was completed in 2014. It opened to regular service on 15 August 2014. The planned China–Nepal railway will connect Xigazê to Kathmandu, capital of Nepal, and is expected to be completed around 2027.[74]

The construction of the Sichuan–Tibet Railway began in 2015. The line is expected to be completed around 2025.[75]

السياحة

قصر پوتالا في لاسا، عاصمة التبت.

انظر أيضاً


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للاستزادة

  • Hannue, Dialogues Tibetan Dialogues Han, travelogue from Tibet – by a woman who's been travelling around Tibet for over a decade, ISBN 978-988-97999-3-9
  • Sorrel Wilby, Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman's 1900-Mile Trek Across the Rooftop of the World, Contemporary Books (1988), hardcover, 236 pages, ISBN 0-8092-4608-2.
  • Hillman, Ben, ‘China’s Many Tibets: Diqing as a model for ‘development with Tibetan characteristics?’ Asian Ethnicity, Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2010, pp 269–277.

وصلات خارجية

قالب:Tibetan autonomy in the People's Republic of China


خطأ استشهاد: وسوم <ref> موجودة لمجموعة اسمها "note"، ولكن لم يتم العثور على وسم <references group="note"/>

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