نهر يانگ‌تسى

(تم التحويل من نهر اليانگتسى)
For other uses, see Yangzi (disambiguation) and Changjiang (disambiguation).
Yangtze River
长江
Dusk on the Yangtze River.jpg
Dusk on the middle reaches of the Yangtze River (Three Gorges) 2002
Yangtze river map.png
Map of the Yangtze River drainage basin
الاسم المحلي[Cháng Jiāng  (صينية)] Error: {{Native name}}: missing language tag (help)  (language?)
الموقع
CountryChina
ProvincesQinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu
MunicipalitiesChongqing and Shanghai
Autonomous regionTibet
CitiesLuzhou, Chongqing, Yichang, Jingzhou, Yueyang, Changsha, Wuhan, Jiujiang, Anqing, Tongling, Wuhu, Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Yangzhou, Nantong, Shanghai
السمات الطبيعية
المنبعDam Qu (Jari Hill)
 ⁃ الموقعTanggula Mountains, Qinghai
 ⁃ الإحداثيات32°36′14″N 94°30′44″E / 32.60389°N 94.51222°E / 32.60389; 94.51222
 ⁃ المنسوب5,170 m (16,960 ft)
2nd sourceUlan Moron
 ⁃ الإحداثيات33°23′40″N 90°53′46″E / 33.39444°N 90.89611°E / 33.39444; 90.89611
3rd sourceChuma'er River
 ⁃ الإحداثيات35°27′19″N 90°55′50″E / 35.45528°N 90.93056°E / 35.45528; 90.93056
4th sourceMuluwusu River
 ⁃ الإحداثيات33°22′13″N 91°10′29″E / 33.37028°N 91.17472°E / 33.37028; 91.17472
5th sourceBi Qu
 ⁃ الإحداثيات33°16′58″N 91°23′29″E / 33.28278°N 91.39139°E / 33.28278; 91.39139
المصبEast China Sea
 - الموقع
Shanghai and Jiangsu
 - الإحداثيات
31°23′37″N 121°58′59″E / 31.39361°N 121.98306°E / 31.39361; 121.98306Coordinates: 31°23′37″N 121°58′59″E / 31.39361°N 121.98306°E / 31.39361; 121.98306
الطول6,300 km (3,900 mi)[1]
مساحة الحوض1,808,500 km2 (698,300 sq mi)[5]
التدفق 
 ⁃ المتوسط30,146 m3/s (1,064,600 cu ft/s)[2]
 ⁃ أدنى تدفق2,000 m3/s (71,000 cu ft/s)
 ⁃ أقصى تدفق110,000 m3/s (3,900,000 cu ft/s)[3][4]
التدفق 
 ⁃ الموقعDatong hydrometric station, Anhui (Uppermost boundary of the ocean tide)
 ⁃ المتوسط(Period: 1980–2020)905.7 km3/a (28,700 m3/s)[6] 30,708 m3/s (1,084,400 cu ft/s) (2019–2020)[7]
التدفق 
 ⁃ الموقعWuhan (Hankou)
 ⁃ المتوسط(Period: 1980–2020)711.1 km3/a (22,530 m3/s)[6]
التدفق 
 ⁃ الموقعYichang (Three Gorges Dam)
 ⁃ المتوسط(Period: 1980–2020)428.7 km3/a (13,580 m3/s)[6]
سمات الحوض
الروافد 
 - اليسرىYalong, Min, Tuo, Jialing, Han
 - اليمنىWu, Yuan, Zi, Xiang, Gan, Huangpu
Chang Jiang
Yangtze River (Chinese characters).svg
"Yangtze River (Cháng jiāng)" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese name
الصينية المبسطة长江
الصينية التقليدية長江
المعنى الحرفي"Long River"
Yangtze River
الصينية المبسطة扬子江
الصينية التقليدية揚子江
Tibetan name
التبتيةའབྲི་ཆུ་

نهر "يانگ‌تسه" (بالـصينية: Listen,扬子江 ) أطول أنهار الـصين -وآسيا- وثالث أطول أنهار العالم بعد نهر النيل في إفريقيا ونهر الأمازون في أمريكا الجنوبية. يبلغ طوله 6380 كم.

ينبع النهر من جبل ثلجي في جبال تانگ گولا في التبت (على ارتفاع 6600 م) بمقاطعة كوينجهاي، ويصل ارتفاع هذه الجبال إلى حوالي 4,880م فوق مستوى سطح البحر. ويتدفق النهر شرقًا، ونحو الجنوب الشرقي، ثم إلى الجنوب نحو مقاطعة يونَّان، ومنها يتدفق نحو الشمال الشرقي عبر مقاطعة سشوان. ثم يتدفق في شكل مجرى غير منتظم نحو الشرق، وخلال وسط الصين، ثم يدخل إلى بحر شرق الصين على مسافة 6,300كم من منبعه. ويصرف نهر يانجتسي وفروعه المياه من مساحة تقرب من 1,829,000 كم².

وتتسبّب الجبال العالية في منبع يانجتسي، في التدفق السريع للنهر في معظم مجراه. وتجعله المضايق الكبيرة في أجزائه العليا، فوق يتسهانج، واحدًا من أكثر الأنهار جمالاً في العالم. وربما تقع أكبر محطات توليد الكهرباء من القوة المائية في العالم فوق يتسهانج. وتُشكِّل الجبال التي يصل ارتفاعها إلى أكثر من 1,6 كم، شواطئ النهر. وتنتشر أكثر من نصف تجارة المحيط في الصين فوق نهر يانجتسي وفروعه. وتصل السفن البخارية التي تمخر عباب المحيط إلى ووهان بوساطة النهر بطول 1,090كم، من الشاطئ. أما الزّوارق الصغيرة فيمكنها الإبحار إلى مسافة 1,600كم، وهو أبعد مكان في الداخل.

ويعيش الآلاف من الصينيين عند نهر يانجتسي على مهنة الإبحار بقوارب تسمى الينك. كما يعيش الملايين من الصينيين على ضفاف هذا النهر. وتتسبب فيضانات الصيف العرضية والمؤقتة في إجلاء كثير من السكان خارج منازلهم. ومن بين المدن الكبيرة على طول نهر يانجتسي شانغهاي، ونانجينگ، ونانكينگ، ويتسهانج، وشونجينج، و ووهان .

نهر اليانگتسي شريان رئيسي للمواصلات النهرية، يربط بين شرق وغرب البلاد، ويسمى "المجرى المائي الذهبي". يتفرع عنه حوالي 700 من الروافد. تتواجد أخصب الأراضي في البلاد على مناطق مجرى نهر اليانغتسي الأوسط والأسفل.

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الأسماء

الصينية

Cháng Jiāng (长江؛ 長江�) or "Long River" is the official name for the Yangtze in Mandarin Chinese. However, the Chinese have given different names to the upstream sections of the river up to its confluence with the Min River at Yibin, Sichuan.[8][9] Jinsha River ("Gold Sands River") refers to the 2,308 km (1,434 mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai, while the Tongtian River ("River that leads to Heaven") describes the 813 km (505 mi) section from Yushu up to the confluence of the Tuotuo River and the Dangqu River.[بحاجة لمصدر]

In Old Chinese, the Yangtze was simply called Jiang/Kiang 江,[10] a character of phono-semantic compound origin, combining the water radical 氵 with the homophone 工 (now pronounced gōng, but *kˤoŋ in Old Chinese[11]). Kong was probably a word in the Austroasiatic language of local peoples such as the Yue. Similar to *krong in Proto-Vietnamese and krung in Mon, all meaning "river", it is related to modern Vietnamese sông (river) and Khmer krung (city on riverside), whence Thai krung (กรุง capital city), not kôngkea (water) which is from the Sanskrit root gáṅgā.[12]

The "Great River" (大江) with its entrance to the East China Sea marked as the "Mouth of the Yangtze" (揚子江口) on the Jiangnan map in the 1754 Provincial Atlas of the Qing Empire

By the Han dynasty, Jiāng had come to mean any river in Chinese, and this river was distinguished as the "Great River" 大江 (Dàjiāng). The epithet 長 (simplified version 长), meaning "long", was first formally applied to the river during the Six Dynasties period.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Various sections of the Yangtze have local names. From Yibin to Yichang, the river through Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality is also known as the Chuān Jiāng (川江�) or "Sichuan River". In Hubei, the river is also called the Jīng Jiāng (荆江؛ 荊江�) or the "Jing River" after Jingzhou, one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. In Anhui, the river takes on the local name Wǎn Jiāng after the shorthand name for Anhui, wǎn (皖). Yángzǐ Jiāng (揚子江؛ 扬子江�) or the "Yangzi River", from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou. The name likely comes from an ancient ferry crossing called Yángzǐ or Yángzǐjīn (揚子 / 揚子津�).[13] Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze River Delta region applied this local name to the whole river.[8] The dividing site between upstream and midstream is considered to be at Yichang and that between midstream and downstream at Hukou (Jiujiang).[14]

الإنجليزية

The river was called Quian (江) and Quianshui (江水) by Marco Polo[15] and appeared on the earliest English maps as Kian or Kiam,[16][17] all recording dialects which preserved forms of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 江 as Kæwng.[10] By the mid-19th century, these romanizations had standardized as Kiang; Dajiang, e.g., was rendered as "Ta-Kiang." "Keeang-Koo,"[18] "Kyang Kew,"[19] "Kian-ku,"[20] and related names derived from mistaking the Chinese term for the mouth of the Yangtze (江口, p Jiāngkǒu) as the name of the river itself.

The name Blue River began to be applied in the 18th century,[16] apparently owing to a former name of the Dam Chu[22] or Min[24] and to analogy with the Yellow River,[25][26] but it was frequently explained in early English references as a 'translation' of Jiang,[27][28] Jiangkou,[18] or Yangzijiang.[29] Very common in 18th- and 19th-century sources, the name fell out of favor due to growing awareness of its lack of any connection to the river's Chinese names[30][31] and to the irony of its application to such a muddy waterway.[31][32]

Matteo Ricci's 1615 Latin account included descriptions of the "Ianſu" and "Ianſuchian."[33] The posthumous account's translation of the name as Fils de la Mer ("Son of the Ocean")[33][34] shows that Ricci, who by the end of his life was fluent in literary Chinese, was introduced to it as the homophonic 洋子江 rather than the usual 揚子江. Further, although railroads and the Shanghai concessions subsequently turned it into a backwater, Yangzhou was the lower river's principal port for much of the Qing dynasty, directing Liangjiang's important salt monopoly and connecting the Yangtze with the Grand Canal to Beijing. (That connection also made it one of the Yellow River's principal ports between the floods of 1344 and the 1850s, during which time the Yellow River ran well south of Shandong and discharged into the ocean a mere few hundred kilometers from the mouth of the Yangtze.[30][20])

By 1800, English cartographers such as Aaron Arrowsmith had adopted the French style of the name[35] as Yang-tse or Yang-tse Kiang.[36] The British diplomat Thomas Wade emended this to Yang-tzu Chiang as part of his formerly popular romanization of Chinese, based on the Beijing dialect instead of Nanjing's and first published in 1867. The spellings Yangtze and Yangtze Kiang was a compromise between the two methods adopted at the 1906 Imperial Postal Conference in Shanghai, which established postal romanization. Hanyu Pinyin was adopted by the PRC's First Congress in 1958, but it was not widely employed in English outside mainland China prior to the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979; since that time, the spelling Yangzi has also been used.

التبتية

The source and upper reaches of the Yangtze are located in ethnic Tibetan areas of Qinghai.[37] In Tibetan, the Tuotuo headwaters are the Machu (التبتية: རྨ་ཆུ་, وايلي: rma-chu, lit. "Red Water"). The Tongtian is the Drichu (འབྲི་ཆུ་ , ‘Bri Chu’), literally "Water of the Female Yak"; transliterated into صينية: 直曲؛ پن‌ين: Zhíqū�).

الجغرافيا

حوض اليانگ تسى


الابحار عبر المضائق الثلاثة على نهر يانگ تسه
Cruise on the Yangtze River before sunset

The river originates from several tributaries in the eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, two of which are commonly referred to as the "source." Traditionally, the Chinese government has recognized the source as the Tuotuo tributary at the base of a glacier lying on the west of Geladandong Mountain in the Tanggula Mountains. This source is found at 33°25′44″N 91°10′57″E / 33.42889°N 91.18250°E / 33.42889; 91.18250 and while not the furthest source of the Yangtze, it is the highest source at 5,342 m (17,526 ft) above sea level. The true source of the Yangtze, hydrologically the longest river distance from the sea, is at Jari Hill at the head of the Dam Qu tributary, approximately 325 km (202 mi) southeast of Geladandong.[38] This source was only discovered in the late 20th century and lies in wetlands at 32°36′14″N 94°30′44″E / 32.60389°N 94.51222°E / 32.60389; 94.51222 and 5,170 m (16,960 ft) above sea level just southeast of Chadan Township in Zadoi County, Yushu Prefecture, Qinghai.[39] As the historical spiritual source of the Yangtze, the Geladandong source is still commonly referred to as the source of the Yangtze since the discovery of the Jari Hill source.[38]

These tributaries join and the river then runs eastward through Qinghai (Tsinghai), turning southward down a deep valley at the border of Sichuan (Szechwan) and Tibet to reach Yunnan. In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above 5,000 m (16,000 ft) to less than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The headwaters of the Yangtze are situated at an elevation of about 4,900 m (16,100 ft). In its descent to sea level, the river falls to an altitude of 305 m (1,001 ft) at Yibin, Sichuan, the head of navigation for riverboats, and to 192 m (630 ft) at Chongqing (Chungking). Between Chongqing and Yichang (I-ch'ang), at an altitude of 40 m (130 ft) and a distance of about 320 km (200 mi), it passes through the spectacular Yangtze Gorges, which are noted for their natural beauty but are dangerous to shipping.

It enters the basin of Sichuan at Yibin. While in the Sichuan basin, it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. It then cuts through Mount Wushan bordering Chongqing and Hubei to create the famous Three Gorges. Eastward of the Three Gorges, Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain.

After entering Hubei, the Yangtze receives water from a number of lakes. The largest of these lakes is Dongting Lake, which is located on the border of Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At Wuhan, it receives its biggest tributary, the Han River, bringing water from its northern basin as far as Shaanxi.

At the northern tip of Jiangxi, Lake Poyang, the biggest freshwater lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through Anhui and Jiangsu, receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at Shanghai.

Four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to Hukou County, where Lake Poyang meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai.

The origin of the Yangtze River has been dated by some geologists to about 45 million years ago in the Eocene,[40] but this dating has been disputed.[ممن؟].[41][42]


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معرض صور

  • The glaciers of the Tanggula Mountains, the traditional source of the Yangtze River

    The glaciers of the Tanggula Mountains, the traditional source of the Yangtze River

  • The Tuotuo River, a headwater stream of the Yangtze River, known in Tibetan as Maqu, or the "Red River"

    The Tuotuo River, a headwater stream of the Yangtze River, known in Tibetan as Maqu, or the "Red River"

  • The first turn of the Yangtze at Shigu (石鼓) in Yunnan, where the river turns 180 degrees from south- to north-bound

    The first turn of the Yangtze at Shigu (石鼓) in Yunnan, where the river turns 180 degrees from south- to north-bound

  • The Jinsha River in Yunnan

    The Jinsha River in Yunnan

  • The Tiger Leaping Gorge near Lijiang downstream from Shigu

    The Tiger Leaping Gorge near Lijiang downstream from Shigu

  • Qutang Gorge, one of the Three Gorges

    Qutang Gorge, one of the Three Gorges

  • Wu Gorge, one of the Three Gorges

    Wu Gorge, one of the Three Gorges

  • Xiling Gorge, one of the Three Gorges

    Xiling Gorge, one of the Three Gorges

الجزيرة الذهبية، on The Yang-Tse River, China (LMS, 1869, p.64)[43]
الإلتفاف الأول لنهر يانگ تسي عند شيگو (石鼓), مقاطعة يونـّان, حيث يلتف النهر 180 درجة من الإتجاه جنوباً إلى الإتجاه شمالاً.
Zhongwen.svg هذه المقالة تحتوي على نصوص بالصينية.
بدون دعم الإظهار المناسب, فقد ترى علامات استفهام ومربعات أو رموز أخرى بدلاً من الحروف الصينية.

البيئة

Ships on the Yangtze at dawn with bridge in the distance (near Nantong).


الخصائص

مقابر على ربوة تواجه اليانگ‌تسى أثناء جريانه.
عبارة متجهة جنوباً بالقرب من نانتونگ



التاريخ

التاريخ الجيولوجي

Although the mouth of the Yellow River has fluctuated widely north and south of the Shandong peninsula within the historical record, the Yangtze has remained largely static. Based on studies of sedimentation rates, however, it is unlikely that the present discharge site predates the late Miocene (11ح. 11 Ma).[44] Prior to this, its headwaters drained south into the Gulf of Tonkin along or near the course of the present Red River.[45]

ضوء العصر على جبال رمادية شاهقة ترتفع من مضيق نهر يانگ تسى

التاريخ المبكر

للمزيد من المعلومات: باي‌يوى, دولة وو, دولة يوى, دولة تشو, and التوسع جنوباً لأسرة هان

The Yangtze River is important to the cultural origins of southern China and Japan.[46] Human activity has been verified in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27,000 years ago,[47] and by the 5th millennium BC, the lower Yangtze was a major population center occupied by the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures, both among the earliest cultivators of rice. By the 3rd millennium  BC, the successor Liangzhu culture showed evidence of influence from the Longshan peoples of the North China Plain.[48] A study of Liangzhu remains found a high prevalence of haplogroup O1, linking it to Austronesian and Daic populations;[49] the same study found the rare haplogroup O3d at a Daxi site on the central Yangtze, indicates possible connection with the Hmong, although "only small traces" of haplogroup O3d remains in Hmong today.[50] What is now thought of as Chinese culture developed along the more fertile Yellow River basin; the "Yue" people of the lower Yangtze possessed very different traditions  – blackening their teeth, cutting their hair short, tattooing their bodies, and living in small settlements among bamboo groves[51]  – and were considered barbarous by the northerners.

The Central Yangtze valley was home to sophisticated Neolithic cultures.[52] Later on it was the earliest part of the Yangtze valley to be integrated into the North Chinese cultural sphere. North Chinese people were active there from the Bronze Age.[53]

خريطة الدويلات المتناحرة حوالي 350 ق.م.، تبين الخط الساحلي السابق لدلتا اليانگ‌تسى.


In the lower Yangtze, two Yue tribes, the Gouwu في جنوب Jiangsu and the يويوى in northern Zhejiang, display increasing Zhou (i.e., North Chinese) influence from the 9th century BC. Traditional accounts[54] credit these changes to northern refugees (Taibo and Zhongyong in Wu and Wuyi in Yue) who assumed power over the local tribes, though these are generally assumed to be myths invented to legitimate them to other Zhou rulers. As the kingdoms of Wu and Yue, they were famed as fishers, shipwrights, and sword-smiths. Adopting Chinese characters, political institutions, and military technology, they were among the most powerful states during the later Zhou. In the middle Yangtze, the state of Jing seems to have begun in the upper Han River valley a minor Zhou polity, but it adapted to native culture as it expanded south and east into the Yangtze valley. In the process, it changed its name to Chu.[55]

Whether native or nativizing, the Yangtze states held their own against the northern Chinese homeland: some lists credit them with three of the Spring and Autumn period's Five Hegemons and one of the Warring States' Four Lords. They fell in against themselves, however. Chu's growing power led its rival Jin to support Wu as a counter. Wu successfully sacked Chu's capital Ying in 506 BC, but Chu subsequently supported Yue in its attacks against Wu's southern flank. In 473 BC, King Goujian of Yue fully annexed Wu and moved his court to its eponymous capital at modern Suzhou. In 333 BC, Chu finally united the lower Yangtze by annexing Yue, whose royal family was said to have fled south and established the Minyue kingdom in Fujian. Qin was able to unite China by first subduing Ba and Shu on the upper Yangtze in modern Sichuan, giving them a strong base to attack Chu's settlements along the river.

The state of Qin conquered the central Yangtze region, previous heartland of Chu, in 278 BC, and incorporated the region into its expanding empire. Qin then used its connections along the Yangtze River the Xiang River to expand China into Hunan, Jiangxi and Guangdong, setting up military commanderies along the main lines of communication. At the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, these southern commanderies became the independent Nanyue Empire under Zhao Tuo while Chu and Han vied with each other for control of the north.

From the Han dynasty, the region of the Yangtze River became more and more important to China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive. The Qin and Han empires were actively engaged in the agricultural colonization of the Yangtze lowlands, maintaining a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods.[56] By the Song dynasty, the area along the Yangtze had become among the wealthiest and most developed parts of the country, especially in the lower reaches of the river. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu, the northern part of Zhejiang, and the southeastern part of Anhui) provided 1⁄3–1⁄2 of the nation's revenues.

The Yangtze has long been the backbone of China's inland water transportation system, which remained particularly important for almost two thousand years, until the construction of the national railway network during the 20th century. The Grand Canal connects the lower Yangtze with the major cities of the Jiangnan region south of the river (Wuxi, Suzhou, Hangzhou) and with northern China (all the way from Yangzhou to Beijing). The less well known ancient Lingqu Canal, connecting the upper Xiang River with the headwaters of the Guijiang, allowed a direct water connection from the Yangtze Basin to the Pearl River Delta.[57]

Historically, the Yangtze became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. This occurred notably during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Southern Song. Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period.

The Yangtze was the site of naval battles between the Song dynasty and Jurchen Jin during the Jin–Song wars. In the Battle of Caishi of 1161, the ships of the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang clashed with the Song fleet on the Yangtze. Song soldiers fired bombs of lime and sulphur using trebuchets at the Jurchen warships. The battle was a Song victory that halted the invasion by the Jin.[58][59] The Battle of Tangdao was another Yangtze naval battle from the same year.

Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing, though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911–12, 1927–37, and 1945–49.

عشرة آلاف ميل من نهر اليانگ‌تسى، لوحة طبيعة من عهد أسرة مينگ.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

عصر البخار

المقالة الرئيسية: البواخر في نهر يانگ‌تسى and محطة الصين

In 1842, the Qing authorities sued for peace, which concluded with the Treaty of Nanking signed on a gunboat in the river, negotiated in August of that year and ratified in 1843. In the treaty, China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain, open five ports to Britain, and cede Hong Kong to Queen Victoria. In the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, the Qing empire also recognized Britain as an equal to China and gave British subjects extraterritorial privileges in treaty ports.

Yangtze River steam boats filmed in 1937

النزاعات الأمريكية والفرنسية

The US, at the same time, wanting to protect its interests and expand trade, ventured the يوإس‌إس Wachusett six hundred miles up the river to Hankow sometime in the 1860s, while the يوإس‌إس Ashuelot, a sidewheeler, made her way up the river to Yichang in 1874. The first يوإس‌إس Monocacy, a sidewheel gunboat, began charting the Yangtze River in 1871. The first يوإس‌إس Palos, an armed tug, was on Asiatic Station into 1891, cruising the Chinese and Japanese coasts, visiting the open treaty ports and making occasional voyages up the Yangtze River. From June to September 1891, anti-foreign riots up the Yangtze forced the warship to make an extended voyage as far as Hankou, 600 miles upriver. Stopping at each open treaty port, the gunboat cooperated with naval vessels of other nations and repairing damage. She then operated along the north and central China coast and on the lower Yangtze until June 1892. The cessation of bloodshed with the Taiping Rebellion, Europeans put more steamers on the river. The French engaged the Chinese in war over the rule of Vietnam. The Sino-French Wars of the 1880s emerged with the Battle of Shipu having French cruisers in the lower Yangtze.

USS Luzon

الملاحة في أعالي النهر

اليانگ‌تسى في 1915
بواخر النزهة في اليانگ‌تسى
حاملة عربات على اليانگ‌تسى
ناقلة حاويات في اليانگ‌تسى


سفن البحرية

البحرية اليابانية الامبراطورية armored cruiser Izumo في شانغهاي في 1937. وقد قامت بإغراق قوارب نهرية في اليانگ‌تسى في 1941.
انظر أيضاً: USS Asheville (PG-21), دورية يانگ‌تسى, and حادث يانگ‌تسى


الهيدرولوجيا

الفيضانات الدورية

انظر أيضاً: قائمة أضرى الفيضانات قتلاً

Tens of millions of people live in the floodplain of the Yangtze valley, an area that naturally floods every summer and is habitable only because it is protected by river dikes. The floods large enough to overflow the dikes have caused great distress to those who live and farm there. Floods of note include those of 1931, 1954, and 1998.

The 1931 Central China floods or the Central China floods of 1931 were a series of floods that occurred in the Republic of China. The floods are generally considered among the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded, and almost certainly the deadliest of the 20th century (when pandemics and famines are discounted). Estimates of the total death toll range from 145,000 to between 3.7 million and 4 million.[60][61] The Yangtze again flooded in 1935, causing great loss of life.

From June to September 1954, the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province. Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954, the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June. Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it, the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou, Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan. The number of dead from this flood was estimated at around 33,000, including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster.

The 1998 Yangtze River floods were a series of major floods that lasted from middle of June to the beginning of September 1998 along the Yangtze.[62] In the summer of 1998, China experienced massive flooding of parts of the Yangtze River, resulting in 3,704 dead, 15 million homeless and $26 billion in economic loss.[63] Other sources report a total loss of 4150 people, and 180 million people were affected.[64] A staggering 25 million acres (100,000 km2) were evacuated, 13.3 million houses were damaged or destroyed. The floods caused $26 billion in damages.[64]

تسببت فيضانات الصين 2016 في خسائر قيمتها 22 مليار دولار.

تدهور النهر

انظر أيضاً: مصادر المياه في الصين § جودة المياه
الصنادل في النهر.

Beginning in the 1950s dams and thousands of kilometres of dikes were built for flood control, land reclamation, irrigation and for the control of diseases vectors such as blood flukes that caused Schistosomiasis. More than a hundred lakes were thus cut off from the main river.[65] There were gates between the lakes that could be opened during floods. However, farmers and settlements encroached on the land next to the lakes although it was forbidden to settle there. When floods came, it proved impossible to open the gates since it would have caused substantial destruction.[66] Thus the lakes partially or completely dried up. For example, Baidang Lake shrunk from 100 square kilometers (39 sq mi) in the 1950s to 40 square kilometers (15 sq mi) in 2005. Zhangdu Lake dwindled to one quarter of its original size. Natural fisheries output in the two lakes declined sharply. Only a few large lakes, such as Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake, remained connected to the Yangtze. Cutting off the other lakes that had served as natural buffers for floods increased the damage done by floods further downstream. Furthermore, the natural flow of migratory fish was obstructed and biodiversity across the whole basin decreased dramatically. Intensive farming of fish in ponds spread using one type of carp who thrived in eutrophic water conditions and who feeds on algae, causing widespread pollution. The pollution was exacerbated by the discharge of waste from pig farms as well as of untreated industrial and municipal sewage.[65][67] In September 2012, the Yangtze river near Chongqing turned red from pollution.[68] The erection of the Three Gorges Dam has created an impassable "iron barrier" that has led to a great reduction in the biodiversity of the river. Yangtze sturgeon use seasonal changes in the flow of the river to signal when is it time to migrate. However, these seasonal changes will be greatly reduced by dams and diversions. Other animals facing immediate threat of extinction are the baiji dolphin, narrow-ridged finless porpoise and the Yangtze alligator. These animals numbers went into freefall from the combined effects of accidental catches during fishing, river traffic, habitat loss and pollution. In 2006 the baiji dolphin became extinct; the world lost an entire genus.[69]

الإسهام في تلوث المحيط

يمر النهر عبر مدينة وه خان التي ظهر فيها وباء CoViD19 وإنتشر في العالم

The Yangtze River produces more ocean plastic pollution than any other, according to The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch environmental research foundation that focuses on ocean pollution. Together with 9 other rivers, the Yangtze transports 90% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans.[70][71]

إعادة ربط البحيرات

In 2002 a pilot program was initiated to reconnect lakes to the Yangtze with the objective to increase biodiversity and to alleviate flooding. The first lakes to be reconnected in 2004 were Zhangdu Lake, Honghu Lake, and Tian'e-Zhou in Hubei on the middle Yangtze. In 2005 Baidang Lake in Anhui was also reconnected.[67]

Reconnecting the lakes improved water quality and fish were able to migrate from the river into the lake, replenishing their numbers and genetic stock. The trial also showed that reconnecting the lake reduced flooding. The new approach also benefitted the farmers economically. Pond farmers switched to natural fish feed, which helped them breed better-quality fish that can be sold for more, increasing their income by 30%. Based on the successful pilot project, other provincial governments emulated the experience and also reestablished connections to lakes that had previously been cut off from the river. In 2005 a Yangtze Forum has been established bringing together 13 riparian provincial governments to manage the river from source to sea.[72] In 2006 China's Ministry of Agriculture made it a national policy to reconnect the Yangtze River with its lakes. As of 2010, provincial governments in five provinces and Shanghai set up a network of 40 effective protected areas, covering 16,500 km2 (6,400 sq mi). As a result, populations of 47 threatened species increased, including the critically endangered Yangtze alligator. In the Shanghai area, reestablished wetlands now protect drinking water sources for the city. It is envisaged to extend the network throughout the entire Yangtze to eventually cover 102 areas and 185,000 km2 (71,000 sq mi). The mayor of Wuhan announced that six huge, stagnating urban lakes including the East Lake (Wuhan) would be reconnected at the cost of US$2.3 billion creating China's largest urban wetland landscape.[65][73]

المدن الرئيسية على النهر

انظر أيضاً: تصنيف:أماكن مأهولة على نهر يانگ‌تسى
Map of the Yangtze river locating the Three Gorges Dam
Satellite map showing the lake created by the Three Gorges Dam. Compare Nov. 7, 2006 (above) with April 17, 1987 (below)

المعابر

المقالة الرئيسية: جسور وأنفاق نهر يانگ‌تسى and معابر خطوط القوى على نهر يانگ‌تسى

Until 1957, there were no bridges across the Yangtze River from Yibin to Shanghai. For millennia, travelers crossed the river by ferry. On occasions, the crossing may have been dangerous, as evidenced by the Zhong’anlun disaster (October 15, 1945).

The river stood as a major geographic barrier dividing northern and southern China. In the first half of the 20th century, rail passengers from Beijing to Guangzhou and Shanghai had to disembark, respectively, at Hanyang and Pukou, and cross the river by steam ferry before resuming journeys by train from Wuchang or Nanjing West.

After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, Soviet engineers assisted in the design and construction of the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, a dual-use road-rail bridge, built from 1955 to 1957. It was the first bridge across the Yangtze River. The second bridge across the river that was built was a single-track railway bridge built upstream in Chongqing in 1959. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, also a road-rail bridge, was the first bridge to cross the lower reaches of the Yangtze, in Nanjing. It was built after the Sino-Soviet Split and did not receive foreign assistance. Road-rail bridges were then built in Zhicheng (1971) and Chongqing (1980).

Bridge-building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing-Jiujiang Railway. A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable-stayed bridges in the world on دلتا نهر يانگتسي: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze.

A number of power line crossings have also been built across the river.

السدود

The Three Gorges Dam in 2006
Diagram showing dams planned for the upper reaches of the Yangtze River

بحلول 2007، كان هناك سدان على نهر يانگ‌تسى: سد المضائق الثلاث وسد گژوبا. السد الثالث، سد ژيلودو تحت الانشاء. هناك سدود إضافية في مرحلة التخطيط، مثل وودونگ‌دى، باي‌هى‌تان، وشيانگ‌جيابا.

الروافد

A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats

The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries. The major tributaries (listed from upstream to downstream) with the locations of where they join the Yangtze are:

Though mostly considered a separate river, the Huai also primarily discharges into the Yangtze.

المصادر

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  71. ^ Schmidt, Christian; Krauth, Tobias; Wagner, Stephan (October 11, 2017). "Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea". Environmental Science & Technology. 51 (21): 12246–12253. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b02368. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 29019247. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  72. ^ WWF China. "The Yangtze Forum" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 25, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2011.
  73. ^ WWF UK. "Where we work:China – the Yangtze". Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2011.

قراءات اضافية

  • Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. Yangtze: nature, history, and the river. A Portable Stanford Book. ISBN 0-201-08894-0
  • Winchester, Simon. 1996. The River at the Center of the World:A Journey up the Yangtze & Back in Chinese Time, Holt, Henry & Company, 1996, hardcover, ISBN 0-8050-3888-4; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0-8050-5508-8; trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, ISBN 0-312-42337-3

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