لغات رومانسية

Romance
Romance
Geographic; distribution	Originally Southern Europe and parts of Northern Africa; now also most of America. Official languages of half the countries in Africa and parts of Oceania.
Linguistic classification	الهندو-اوروبية الإيطاليقية Romance; ;
Proto-language	Vulgar Latin
Subdivisions	Italo-Western; Eastern Romance; Sardinian;
ISO 639-5	roa
Linguasphere	51- (phylozone)

اللغات الرومانسية هي اللغات التي أصلها اللغة اللاتينية وتعد أحد فروع اللغات الهندوأوروبية. أغلبيتها في جنوب أوروبا وأهمها هي الإيطالية والفرنسية والإسبانية والبرتغالية والرومانية. بسبب الاستعمار الإسباني والفرنسي، دخلت هذه اللغات في أنحاء كثيرة من العالم، وخاصة قارة أمريكا وأفريقيا. يتحدث بها كلغة أم حوالي 600 مليون متحدث حول العالم.

اللغات الرومانسية مشتقة من اللاتينية العامية (أو السوقية) والتي كانت لغة جنود وعبيد الإمبراطورية الرومانية.

يوجد كذلك لغات محلية رومانسية مثل الوالون.

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الاسم

Romance languages in Europe in the twenty-first century.

اللغات الرومانسية حول العالم:
الأزرق – الفرنسية; الأخضر – الإسبانية; البرتقالي – البرتغالية; الأصفر – الإيطالية; الأحمر – الرومانية

The term "Romance" comes from the Vulgar Latin adverb romanice, derived from Romanicus: for instance, in the expression romanice loqui, "to speak in Roman" (that is, the Latin vernacular), contrasted with latine loqui, "to speak in Latin" (Medieval Latin, the conservative version of the language used in writing and formal contexts or as a lingua franca), and with barbarice loqui, "to speak in Barbarian" (the non-Latin languages of the peoples living outside the Roman Empire).^[1] From this adverb the noun romance originated, which applied initially to anything written romanice, or "in the Roman vernacular".

The word romance with the modern sense of romance novel or love affair has the same origin. In the medieval literature of Western Europe, serious writing was usually in Latin, while popular tales, often focusing on love, were composed in the vernacular and came to be called "romances".

عينات

Lexical and grammatical similarities among the Romance languages, and between Latin and each of them, are apparent from the following examples having the same meaning:

English: She always closes the window before she dines.

Latin	(Ea) semper antequam cenat fenestram claudit.
Aragonese	(Ella) zarra siempre a finestra antes de cenar.
Aromanian	(Ea/Nâsa) încljidi/nkidi totna firida ninti di tsinâ.
Asturian	(Ella) pieslla siempres la ventana enantes de cenar.
Bergamasque	(Lé) la sèra sèmper sö la finèstra prima de senà.
Bolognese	(Lî) la sèra sänper la fnèstra prémma ed dsnèr.
Catalan	(Ella) sempre tanca la finestra abans de sopar.
Corsican	(Ella/Edda) chjode sempre u purtellu nanzu di cenà.
Emilian	(Lē) la sèra sèmpar sù la fnèstra prima ad snàr.
Extremaduran	(Ella) afecha siempri la ventana antis de cenal.
Franco-Provençal	(Le) sarre toltin/tojor la fenétra avan de goutâ/dinar/sopar.
French	Elle ferme toujours la fenêtre avant de dîner/souper.
Friulan	(Jê) e siere simpri il barcon prin di cenâ.
Galician	(Ela) pecha/fecha sempre a fiestra/xanela antes de cear.
Italian	(Ella/Lei) chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenare.
Judaeo-Spanish	Eya serra syempre la ventana antes de senar.
Ladin	(Ëra) stlüj dagnora la finestra impröma de cenè. (badiot) (Ëila) stluj for l viere dan maië da cëina (gherdëina)
Leonese	(Eilla) pecha siempre la ventana primeiru de cenare.
Ligurian	(Le) a saera sempre u barcun primma de cenà.
Magoua	(Elle) à fàrm toujour là fnèt àvan k'à manj.
Mauritian Creole	Li touzur pou ferm lafnet avan (li) manze.
Milanese	(Le) la sara semper sü la finestra prima de disnà.
Mirandese	(Eilha) cerra siempre la bentana/jinela atrás de jantar.
Mozarabic	Ella cloudet sempre la fainestra abante da cenare. (reconstructed)
Neapolitan	Essa nzerra sempe 'a fenesta primma 'e magnà.
Norman	Lli barre tréjous la crouésie devaunt de daîner.
Occitan	(Ela) barra sempre/totjorn la fenèstra abans de sopar.
Picard	Ale frunme tojours l’ creusèe édvint éd souper.
Piedmontese	Chila a sara sèmper la fnestra dnans ëd fé sin-a/dnans ëd siné.
Portuguese	Ela fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar/cear.
Romanian	Ea închide totdeauna fereastra înainte de cinare.
Romansh	Ella clauda/serra adina la fanestra avant ch'ella tschainia.
Sardinian	Issa sèrrat sémper^[2]/sémpri^[3] sa bentàna innantis de chenàre^[2]/cenài.^[3]
Sassarese	Edda sarra sempri lu balchoni primma di zinà.
Sicilian	Idda chiui sempri la finestra prima di pistiari/manciari.
Spanish	(Ella) siempre cierra la ventana antes de cenar.
Umbrian	Essa chjude sempre la finestra prima de cena'.
Venetian	Eła ła sara/sera sempre ła fenestra vanti de xenàr/disnar.
Walloon	Ele sere todi li finiesse divant di soper.

التاريخ

اللاتينية السوقية

مقالة مفصلة: اللاتينية السوقية

سقوط الامبراطورية الرومانية الغربية

الرومانس المبكر

Over the course of the fourth to eighth centuries AD, Vulgar Latin, by this time highly dialectalized, broke up into discrete languages that were no longer mutually intelligible.^[4]^:5 Clear evidence of Latin change comes from the Reichenau Glosses, an eighth-century compilation of about 1,200 words from the fourth-century Latin Vulgate Bible (St. Jerome) that were no longer understandable along with their eighth-century equivalents in proto-Franco-Provençal. The following are some examples with reflexes in several modern, closely related Romance languages for comparison:

English	Classical / 4th cent. (Vulgate)	8th cent. (Reichenau)	Franco-Provençal	French	Romansh	Italian	Spanish	Portuguese	Romanian	Catalan
once	semel	una vice	una fês	une fois	(ina giada)	una volta	una vez	uma vez	(odată)	una vegada, (un cop)
children	liberos	infantes	enfants	enfants	unfants	bambini	(niños)	(crianças)	(copii)	infants, (nens, etc.)
to blow	flare	suflare	soflar	souffler	suflar	soffiare	soplar	soprar	suflare	(bufar)
to sing	canere	cantare	çhantar	chanter	chantar	cantare	cantar	cantar	cântare	cantar
best	optimos	meliores	(los) mèljörs	(les) meilleurs	(ils) megliers	i migliori	(los) mejores	(os) melhores	optimii/(cei mai buni)	(els) millors
beautiful	pulcra	bella	bèla	belle	bella	bella	(hermosa)/bella	bela	(frumoasă)	(bonica), bella
in the mouth	in ore	in bucca	en la boçhe	dans la bouche	in la bucca	nella bocca	en la boca	na boca ^[5]	în gură ^[6]	a la boca
winter	hiems	hibernus	hìvern	hiver	inviern	inverno	invierno	inverno	iarnă	hivern

الوضع المعاصر

Romance languages, twentieth century

Number of native speakers of each Romance language, as fractions of the total 690 million

The Romance language most widely spoken natively today is Spanish (Castilian), followed by Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, and Catalan, all of which are official languages in at least one country. A few other languages have official status on a regional or otherwise limited level, for instance Friulan, Sardinian and Franco-Provençal in Italy; Romansh in Switzerland; and Galician in Spain.

Romance languages in the World

French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Romanian are also official languages of the European Union. Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, and Catalan are the official languages of the Latin Union; and French and Spanish are two of the six official languages of the United Nations.

التصنيف واللغات المتعلقة

Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones.

Eastern and Western Romance areas split by the La Spezia–Rimini Line

The classification of the Romance languages is inherently difficult, since most of the linguistic area can be considered a dialect continuum, and in some cases political biases can come into play. Along with Latin (which is not included among the Romance languages) and a few extinct languages of ancient Italy, they make up the Italic branch of the Indo-European family.

Continental Romance

Italo-Western Romance

Eastern Romance

Western Romance

Proto-Italian

Balkan Romance

Albanian words

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التقسيمات المقترحة

Extent of variation in development (very conservative to very innovatory)
Form ("to sing")	Latin	Nuorese Sardinian	Spanish	Brazilian Portuguese	Central Catalan	Romanian	French
Infinitive	cantāre	[kanˈtare]	[kanˈtar]	[kɐ̃ˈtah] ¹	[kənˈta]	[kɨnˈta(re)]	[ʃɑ̃ˈte]
Past Part.	cantātum	[kanˈtatu]	[kanˈtaðo]	[kɐ̃ˈtadu]	[kənˈtat]	[kɨnˈtat]	[ʃɑ̃ˈte]
Gerund	cantandō	[kanˈtande]	[kanˈtando]	[kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃ndu]	[kənˈtan]	[kɨnˈtɨnd]	[ʃɑ̃ˈtɑ̃]
1sg. indic.	cantō	[ˈkanto]	[ˈkanto]	[ˈkɐ̃tu]	[ˈkantu]	[ˈkɨnt]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
2sg. indic.	cantās	[ˈkantaza]	[ˈkantas]	[ˈkɐ̃tɐs]	[ˈkantəs]	[ˈkɨntsʲ]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
3sg. indic.	cantat	[ˈkantata]	[ˈkanta]	[ˈkɐ̃tɐ]	[ˈkantə]	[ˈkɨntə]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
1pl. indic.	cantāmus	[kanˈtamuzu]	[kanˈtamos]	[kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃mus]	[kənˈtɛm]	[kɨnˈtəm]	[ʃɑ̃ˈtɔ̃]
2pl. indic.	cantātis	[kanˈtateze]	[kanˈtais]	[kɐ̃ˈtajs]	[kənˈtɛw]	[kɨnˈtatsʲ]	[ʃɑ̃ˈte]
3pl. indic.	cantant	[ˈkantana]	[ˈkantan]	[ˈkɐ̃tɐ̃w̃]	[ˈkantən]	[ˈkɨntə]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
1sg. subj.	cantem	[ˈkante]	[ˈkante]	[ˈkɐ̃tʃi]	[ˈkanti]	[ˈkɨnt]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
2sg. subj.	cantēs	[ˈkanteze]	[ˈkantes]	[ˈkɐ̃tʃis]	[ˈkantis]	[ˈkɨntsʲ]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
3sg. subj.	cantet	[ˈkantete]	[ˈkante]	[ˈkɐ̃tʃi]	[ˈkanti]	[ˈkɨnte]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
1pl. subj.	cantēmus	[kanˈtemuzu]	[kanˈtemos]	[kɐ̃ˈtẽmus]	[kənˈtɛm]	[kɨnˈtəm]	[ʃɑ̃ˈtjɔ̃]
2pl. subj.	cantētis	[kanˈtedeze]	[kanˈteis]	[kɐ̃ˈtejs]	[kənˈtɛw]	[kɨnˈtatsʲ]	[ʃɑ̃ˈtje]
3pl. subj.	cantent	[ˈkantene]	[ˈkanten]	[ˈkɐ̃tẽj̃]	[ˈkantin]	[ˈkɨnte]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
2sg. impv.	cantā	[ˈkanta]	[ˈkanta]	[ˈkɐ̃tɐ]	[ˈkantə]	[ˈkɨntə]	[ˈʃɑ̃t]
2pl. impv.	cantāte	[kanˈtate]	[kanˈtað]	[kɐ̃ˈtaj]	[kənˈtɛw]	[kɨnˈtatsʲ]	[ʃɑ̃ˈte]
¹ Also [ɾ̥ r̥ ɻ̝̊ x χ ħ] are all possible allophones of [h] in this position.

Verbal morphology

Correspondence between Latin and Romance tenses
Latin	Portuguese	Spanish	Catalan	Occitan	French	Rhaeto-Romance	Italian	Romanian	Sardinian
Present indicative	Present indicative
Present subjunctive	Present indicative
Imperfect indicative	Imperfect indicative
Imperfect subjunctive	Personal infinitive	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Imperfect subjunctive / Personal infinitive
Future indicative	—	eres ("you are")	—	—	future of "to be" in Old French	—	—	—	—
Perfect indicative	Preterite		Simple preterite (literary except in Valencian)	Preterite	Simple past (literary)	—	Preterite (Tuscan Standard Italian);^[7] Literary Remote Past (Regional Standard Italian in North); Preterite/Perfect (Regional Standard Italian in South)	Simple past (literary except in the Oltenian dialect)	In Old Sardinian; only traces in modern lang
Perfect subjunctive	—
Pluperfect indicative	Literary pluperfect	Imperfect subjunctive (-ra form)	—	Second conditional in Old Occitan	Second preterite in very early Old French (Sequence of Saint Eulalia)^[8]	—	—	—	—
Pluperfect subjunctive	Imperfect subjunctive							Pluperfect indicative	—
Future perfect	Future subjunctive (very much alive)	Future subjunctive (moribund)	—	possible traces of future subjunctive in Old Occitan^[9]	—	—	possible traces of future subjunctive in Old Italian	—	—
New future	infinitive+habeo							voleo+infinitive	voleo+infinitive
New conditional	infinitive+habebam					infinitive+habuisset	infinitive+habuit	habeo+infinitive (split apart from infinitive+habeo in eighteenth-century Romanian)	—
Preterite vs. present perfect (in speech)	preterite only (present perfect exists, but has different meaning)	both	both (but usually an analytic preterite vado+infinitive is used)	?	present perfect only	present perfect only	both (Tuscan Standard Italian);^[7] present perfect only (Regional Standard Italian in North); preference for preterite (Regional Standard Italian in South)	present perfect only	present perfect only

Verbs have many conjugations, including in most languages:

A present tense, a preterite, an imperfect, a pluperfect, a future tense and a future perfect in the indicative mood, for statements of fact.
Present and preterite subjunctive tenses, for hypothetical or uncertain conditions. Several languages (for example, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish) have also imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives, although it is not unusual to have just one subjunctive equivalent for preterit and imperfect (e.g. no unique subjunctive equivalent in Italian of the so-called passato remoto). Portuguese, and until recently Spanish, also have future and future perfect subjunctives, which have no equivalent in Latin.
An imperative mood, for direct commands.
Three non-finite forms: infinitive, gerund, and past participle.
Distinct active and passive voices, as well as an impersonal passive voice.
Note that, although these categories are largely inherited from Classical Latin, many of the forms are either newly constructed or inherited from different categories (e.g. the Romance imperfect subjunctive most commonly is derived from the Latin pluperfect subjunctive, while the Romance pluperfect subjunctive is derived from a new present perfect tense with the auxiliary verb placed in the imperfect subjunctive).

Several tenses and aspects, especially of the indicative mood, have been preserved with little change in most languages, as shown in the following table for the Latin verb dīcere (to say), and its descendants.

	Infinitive	Indicative			Subjunctive	Imperative
	Infinitive	Present	Preterite	Imperfect	Present	Present
Latin	dīcere	dīcit	dīxit	dicēbat	dīcat/dīcet	dīc
Aragonese	dicir	diz	dició	deciba/diciba	diga	diz
Asturian	dicir	diz	dixo	dicía	diga	di
Catalan	dir	diu/dit	digué/va dir/dit	deia	digui/diga	digues
Corsican	dì	dice/dici	disse/dissi	dicia	dica/dichi	dì
Emilian	dîr	dîs	l'à détt / dgé	dgeva	dégga	dì
Franco-Provençal	dire	di	dè	djéve	dijisse/dzéze	dète
French	dire¹	dit	dit	disait	dise	dis
Galician	dicir	di	dixo	dicía	diga	di
Italian	di(ce)re	dice	disse	diceva	dica	dì
Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)	dezir	dize	disho	dezía	diga	dezí
Leonese	dicire	diz	dixu	dicía	diga	di
Milanese	dì	dis	ha dit	diseva	diga	dì
Mirandese	dir	diś	à dit	dgiva	diga	dì
Neapolitan	dicere	dice	dicette	diceva	diche	dije
Occitan	díser/dire	ditz	diguèt	disiá	diga	diga
Picard	dire	dit	–	disoait	diche	–
Piedmontese	dì	dis	dìsser², l'ha dit	disìa	disa	dis
Portuguese	dizer	diz	disse	dizia	diga	diz³
Romanian	a zice, zicere⁴	zice	zise	zicea	zică	zi
Romansh	dir	di	ha ditg	discheva⁵	dia	di
Sardinian	nàrrer⁶	nàrat	at naràdu	naraìat/nàbat	nérzat/nìet	nàra
Sicilian	dìciri	dici	dissi	dicìa	dica⁷	dici
Spanish	decir	dice	dijo	decía	diga	di
Venetian	dir	dise	–	disea	diga	dì/disi
Walloon	dire	dit	a dit	dijheut	dixhe	di
Basic meaning	to say	he says	he said	he was saying	he says	say [thou]

¹The spelling is conservative. Note the pronunciations: dire /diʁ/, dit /di/, disait /dizɛ/, dise /diz/, dis /di/.

²Until the eighteenth century.

³With the disused variant dize.

⁴long infinitive

⁵In modern times, scheva.

⁶Derived from the unrelated Latin verb narrāre "to tell (a story)". Note also the pronunciations: narrer /ˈnarrere/, narat /ˈnarada/, at naradu /a nnaˈradu/, naraiat /narˈaiada/, nabat /ˈnabata/, nerzat /ˈnertsada/, niet /ˈniete/, nara /ˈnara/.

⁷Sicilian now uses imperfect subjunctive dicissi in place of present subjunctive.

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مقارنة معجمية

الإنگليزية	Latin	Sardinian	Romanian	Sicilian	Italian	Venetian	Lombard	Emilian	Piedmontese	Friulian	Romansh	French	Occitan	Catalan	Aragonese	Spanish	Asturian	Portuguese
الإنگليزية	Latin	Sardinian (Nuorese)^[10]	Romanian	Sicilian^[11]^[12]^[13]	Italian	Venetian	Emilian	Lombard	Piedmontese^[14]	Friulian^[15]	Romansh	French	Occitan^[16]	Catalan	Aragonese^[17]	Spanish	Asturian^[18]	Portuguese
man	homō, hominem	ómine	om	omu	uomo	om(en)o	òm(en)		òm	om	um	homme /ɔm/	òme	home	ombre, ome	hombre	home	homem
woman, wife	mulier, mulierem	muzère	muiere	mugghieri	moglie	mojer			mojé	muîr	muglier	OF moillier	OOc mólher (nom.) / molhér (obj.)	muller	muller	mujer	muyer	mulher
son	fīlium	fìzu	fiu	figghiu	figlio	fiol			fieul	fi	figl, fegl	fils /fis/	filh	fill	fillo	hijo	fíu	filho
water	aquam	àbba	apǎ	acqua	acqua	acua	aqua	âcua	eva	aghe	aua	eau /o/	aiga	aigua	aigua, augua	agua	agua	água
fire	focum	fócu	foc	focu	fuoco	fogo	foeugh	fûg	feu	fûc	fieu	feu /fø/	fuòc	foc	fuego	fuego	fueu	fogo
rain	pluviam	próida	ploaie	chiuvuta^[19]	pioggia	pióva	pioeuva	piôva	pieuva	ploe	plievgia	pluie /plɥi/	pluèja	pluja	plebia	lluvia	lluvia	chuva
land	terram	tèrra	ţară	terra	terra	tera		tera	tèra	tiere	terra/tiara	terre /tɛʁ/	tèrra	terra	tierra	tierra	tierra	terra
sky	caelum	chélu	cer	celu	cielo	çiél			cel	cîl	tschiel	ciel /sjɛl/	cèl	cel	zielo	cielo	cielu	céu
high	altum	àrtu	înaltu	autu	alto	alto	alt	èlt	àut	alt	aut	haut^[20] /o/	n-aut	alt	alto	alto	altu	alto
new	novum	nóbu	nou	novu	nuovo	nóvo	noeuv	nôv	neuv	gnove	nov	neuf /nœf/	nòu	nou	nuebo	nuevo	nuevu	novo
horse	caballum	càdhu	cal	cavaddu	cavallo	cavało	cavall	cavâl	caval	ĉhaval	chaval	cheval /ʃ(ǝ)val/	caval	cavall	caballo	caballo	caballu	cavalo
dog	canem	cane	câine	cani	cane	can		cà	can	cjan	chaun	chien /ʃjɛ̃/	can	ca	can	can	can	cão
do	facere	fàchere	face(re)	fari	fare	far	fà	fèr	fé	fâ	far	faire /fɛʁ/	far/fàser	fer	fer	hacer	facer	fazer
milk	lactem	làte	lapte	latti	latte	late	latt	lât	làit	lat	latg	lait /lɛ/	lach	llet	leit	leche	lleche	leite
eye	oculum > *oclum	ócru	ochi	occhiu	occhio	ocio			eucc, euj	voli	egl	oeil /œj/	uèlh	ull	güello	ojo	güeyu	olho
ear	auriculam > *oriclam	orícra	ureche	ricchi	orecchio	orécia			orija	orele	ureglia	oreille /ɔʁɛj/	aurelha	orella	orella	oreja	oreya	orelha
tongue/ language	linguam	límba	limbǎ	lingua	lingua	léngua	lengua	langua	lenga	lenghe	lingua	langue /lɑ̃g/	lenga	llengua	luenga	lengua	llingua	língua
hand	manum	manu	mână	manu	mano	man			man	man	maun	main /mɛ̃/	man	mà	man	mano	mano	mão [mɐ̃w̃]
skin	pellem	pèdhe	piele	peddi	pelle	pełe	pell	pèl	pel	piel	pel	peau /po/	pèl	pell	piel	piel	piel	pele
I	ego	dègo	eu	ju/jè	io	(mi)^[21]	(mì)^[21]	(mé)^[21]	i(/mi)^[21]	jo	jau	je /ʒǝ/	ieu/jo	jo	yo	yo	yo	eu
our	nostrum	nóstru	nostru	nostru	nostro	nostro	noster	nòster	nòst	nestri	noss	notre /nɔtʁ/	nòstre	nostre	nuestro	nuestro	nuesu,^[22] nuestru	nosso^[22]
three	trēs	tres	trei	tri	tre	tre	trii	trî (m)/ trai (f)	trè	tre	trais	trois /tʁwa/	tres	tres	tres	tres	trés	três
four	quattuor > *quattro	bàttoro	patru	quattru	quattro	cuatro			quatr	cuatri	quat(t)er	quatre /katʁ/	quatre	quatre	cuatre, cuatro	cuatro	cuatro	quatro
five	quīnque > *cīnque	chímbe	cinci	cincu	cinque	çincue			sinch	cinc	tschintg	cinq /sɛ̃k/	cinc	cinc	zinco, zingo	cinco	cinco, cincu	cinco
six	sex	ses	şase	sie	sei	sìe			ses	sîs	sis	six /sis/	sièis	sis	seis/sais	seis	seis	seis
seven	septem	sète	şapte	setti	siete	sete			set	siet	se(a)t, siat	sept /sɛt/	sèt	set	siet(e)	siete	siete	sete
eight	octō	òto	opt	ottu	otto	oto			eut	vot	ot(g), och	huit /ɥit/	uèch	vuit	güeito, ueito	ocho	ocho	oito
nine	novem	nòbe	nouă	novi	nove	nove			neuv	nûv	no(u)v	neuf /nœf/	nòu	nou	nueu	nueve	nueve	nove
ten	decem	dèche	zece	deci	dieci	diéxe			des	dîs	diesch	dix /dis/	dètz	deu	diez	diez	diez	dez

انظر أيضاً

الهامش

^ Ilari, Rodolfo (2002). Lingüística Românica. Ática. p. 50. ISBN 85-08-04250-7.
^ ^أ ^ب Logudorese (north) Sardinian
^ ^أ ^ب Campidanese (south) Sardinian
^ Price, Glanville (1984). The French language: past and present. London: Grant and Cutler Ltd.
^ "Na" is a contraction of "em" (in) + "a" (the), the form "em a" is never used, it is always replaced by "na". The same happens with other prepositions: "de" (of) + o/a/os/as (singular and plural forms for "the" in masculine and feminine) = do, da, dos, das; etc.
^ Related terms are îmbuca(verb) meaning to put in mounth and cavitatea bucala scientific term for mouth
^ ^أ ^ب Accademia della Crusca On the use of the passato remoto (in Italian)^{[dead link]}
^ Cf. auret "she had" < Latin habuerat, voldrent "they wanted" < Latin voluerant. Not clearly distinct in meaning from the first (normal) preterite, cf. the parallel lines por o fut presentede "for this reason she was presented" (fut = first preterite, from Latin fuit) vs. por o's furet morte "for these reasons she was killed" (furet = second preterite, from Latin fuerat) in the same poem.
^ Paden, William D. 1998. An Introduction to Old Occitan. Modern Language Association of America. ISBN 0-87352-293-1. (NEED PAGE NUMBER)
^ "Ditzionàriu Online". Retrieved 2013-09-14.
^ "Sicilian–English Dictionary". Italian.about.com. 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2010-11-06.
^ "Dictionary Sicilian – Italian". Utenti.lycos.it. Retrieved 2010-11-06.
^ "Indo-European Languages". Retrieved 2013-09-18.
^ "Grand Dissionari Piemontèis / Grande Dizionario Piemontese". Retrieved 2013-09-17.
^ "Dictionary English–Friulian Friulian–English". Sangiorgioinsieme.it. Retrieved 2011-07-31.
^ Beaumont (2008-12-16). "Occitan–English Dictionary". Freelang.net. Retrieved 2010-11-06.
^ "English Aragonese Dictionary Online". Glosbe. Retrieved 2013-09-18.
^ "English Asturian Dictionary Online". Glosbe. Retrieved 2013-09-18.
^ Developed from *pluviūtam.
^ Initial h- due to contamination of Germanic *hauh "high". Although no longer pronounced, it reveals its former presence by inhibiting elision of a preceding schwa, e.g. le haut "the high" vs. l'eau "the water".
^ ^أ ^ب ^ت ^ث Cognate with Latin mē, not ego. Note that this parallels the state of affairs in Celtic, where the cognate of ego is not attested anywhere, and the use of the accusative form cognate to mē has been extended to cover the nominative, as well.
^ ^أ ^ب Developed from an assimilated form *nossum rather than from nostrum.

وصلات خارجية

هذه بذرة مقالة عن علم اللسانيات تحتاج للنمو والتحسين، ساهم في إثرائها بالمشاركة في تحريرها.

الكلمات الدالة:

جنوب أوروپا

[Ilari-1] Ilari, Rodolfo (2002). Lingüística Românica. Ática. p. 50. ISBN 85-08-04250-7.

[ReferenceA-2] أ ^ب Logudorese (north) Sardinian

[ReferenceB-3] أ ^ب Campidanese (south) Sardinian

[price-4] Price, Glanville (1984). The French language: past and present. London: Grant and Cutler Ltd.

[5] "Na" is a contraction of "em" (in) + "a" (the), the form "em a" is never used, it is always replaced by "na". The same happens with other prepositions: "de" (of) + o/a/os/as (singular and plural forms for "the" in masculine and feminine) = do, da, dos, das; etc.

[6] Related terms are îmbuca(verb) meaning to put in mounth and cavitatea bucala scientific term for mouth

[accademiadellacrusca.it-7] أ ^ب Accademia della Crusca On the use of the passato remoto (in Italian)^{[dead link]}

[8] Cf. auret "she had" < Latin habuerat, voldrent "they wanted" < Latin voluerant. Not clearly distinct in meaning from the first (normal) preterite, cf. the parallel lines por o fut presentede "for this reason she was presented" (fut = first preterite, from Latin fuit) vs. por o's furet morte "for these reasons she was killed" (furet = second preterite, from Latin fuerat) in the same poem.

[9] Paden, William D. 1998. An Introduction to Old Occitan. Modern Language Association of America. ISBN 0-87352-293-1. (NEED PAGE NUMBER)

[10] "Ditzionàriu Online". Retrieved 2013-09-14.

[11] "Sicilian–English Dictionary". Italian.about.com. 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2010-11-06.

[12] "Dictionary Sicilian – Italian". Utenti.lycos.it. Retrieved 2010-11-06.

[13] "Indo-European Languages". Retrieved 2013-09-18.

[14] "Grand Dissionari Piemontèis / Grande Dizionario Piemontese". Retrieved 2013-09-17.

[15] "Dictionary English–Friulian Friulian–English". Sangiorgioinsieme.it. Retrieved 2011-07-31.

[16] Beaumont (2008-12-16). "Occitan–English Dictionary". Freelang.net. Retrieved 2010-11-06.

[17] "English Aragonese Dictionary Online". Glosbe. Retrieved 2013-09-18.

[18] "English Asturian Dictionary Online". Glosbe. Retrieved 2013-09-18.

[19] Developed from *pluviūtam.

[20] Initial h- due to contamination of Germanic *hauh "high". Although no longer pronounced, it reveals its former presence by inhibiting elision of a preceding schwa, e.g. le haut "the high" vs. l'eau "the water".

[latinme-21] أ ^ب ^ت ^ث Cognate with Latin mē, not ego. Note that this parallels the state of affairs in Celtic, where the cognate of ego is not attested anywhere, and the use of the accusative form cognate to mē has been extended to cover the nominative, as well.

[nosso-22] أ ^ب Developed from an assimilated form *nossum rather than from nostrum.

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