اللغات السكوذية
Scythian | |
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![]() The approximate distribution of Eastern Iranic languages and peoples in 100 BC appears in green. | |
موطنها | Sarmatia, Scythia, Sistan, Scythia Minor, Alania |
المنطقة | Central Asia, West Asia, Eastern Europe |
العرق | Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans |
الحقبة | Classical antiquity, late antiquity Middle Ages (Alanian) |
اللهجات |
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أكواد اللغات | |
ISO 639-3 | Variously: xsc – Scythian xln – Alanian oos – Old Ossetian |
xsc Scythian | |
xln Alanian | |
oos Old Ossetian | |
Glottolog | sogd1247 Sogdic-Osseticsaka1303 Saka-Wakhi |
جزء من سلسلة عن |
المواضيع الهندو-أوروپية |
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The Scythian languages ( /ˈsɪθiən/ or /ˈsɪðiən/ or /ˈskɪθiən/) are a group of Eastern Iranic languages of the classical and late antique period (the Middle Iranic period), spoken in a vast region of Eurasia by the populations belonging to the Scythian cultures and their descendants. The dominant ethnic groups among the Scythian-speakers were nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Fragments of their speech known from inscriptions and words quoted in ancient authors as well as analysis of their names indicate that it was an Indo-European language, more specifically from the Iranic group of Indo-Iranic languages.
Most of the Scythian languages eventually became extinct, except for modern Ossetian (which descends from the Alanian dialect of Scytho-Sarmatian), Wakhi (which descends from the Khotanese and Tumshuqese forms of Scytho-Khotanese), and Yaghnobi (which descends from Sogdian). Alexander Lubotsky summarizes the known linguistic landscape as follows:[1]
Unfortunately, we know next to nothing about the Scythian of that period [Old Iranian] – we have only a couple of personal and tribal names in Greek and Persian sources at our disposal – and cannot even determine with any degree of certainty whether it was a single language.
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Classification
Ossetian is an Eastern Iranic language. The vast majority of Scythological scholars agree in considering the Scythian languages a part of the Eastern Iranic languages too. This relies principally on the fact that the Greek inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Coast contain several hundreds of Sarmatian names showing a close affinity to the Ossetian language.[2][3]
Some scholars detect a division of Scythian into two dialects: a western, more conservative dialect, and an eastern, more innovative one.[4] The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum:
- Alanian languages or Scytho-Sarmatian in the west: were spoken by people originally of Iranic stock from the 8th and 7th century BC onwards in the area of Ukraine, Southern Russia and Kazakhstan.
- Modern Ossetian survives as a continuation of the language family possibly represented by Scytho-Sarmatian inscriptions, although the Scytho-Sarmatian language family "does not simply represent the same [Ossetian] language" at an earlier date.
![](/w/images/thumb/0/0d/Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg/260px-Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg)
- Saka languages or Scytho-Khotanese in the east: spoken in the first century in the Kingdom of Khotan (located in present-day Xinjiang, China), and including the Khotanese of Khotan and Tumshuqese of Tumshuq.[5]
It is highly probable that already in the Old Iranic period there were some eastern Scythian dialects which gave rise to ancestor(s) of Sogdian language and Yaghnobi, although data required to test this hypothesis is presently lacking.[6]
The Scythian languages shared some features with other Eastern Iranic languages, such as the use of the suffix -ta to denote the plural form, which is also present in Sogdian, Chorasmian, Ossetian, and Yaghnobi.[7]
Phonology
The Pontic Scythian language possessed the following phonemes:[8]
Front | Back | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i | iː | u | uː |
Mid | eː | oː | ||
Open | a | aː |
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labiovelar | Glottal | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive | p | b | t | d (earliest) | k | ɡ | ||||||||||
Affricate | t͡s | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | |||||||||||||
Fricative | f | θ | ð (earlier) | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | x | xʷ | h | ||||||
Sonorant | m | w | l (later) | n | r | j | (ŋ) |
This article uses cursive theta ⟨ϑ⟩ to denote the Scythian voiceless dental fricative (IPA /θ/), and regular theta ⟨θ⟩ to denote the Greek aspirated, voiceless dental plosive (IPA /tʰ/).
The western dialects of the Scythian languages had experienced an evolution of the Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into the Proto-Scythian sound /ð/, which in the Cimmerian and Pontic dialects of Scythian became the sound /l/. Scythian shares the evolution of Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into /ð/ with all Eastern Iranic languages with the exception of Ossetian, Yaghnobi, and Ishkashimi; and the later evolution of /ð/ into /l/ is also present in several Eastern Iranic languages such as Bactrian, Pashto, Munjani, and Yidgha.[7][8]
History
Early Eastern Iranic peoples originated in the Yaz culture (ca. 1500–1100 BC) in Central Asia.[9] The Scythians migrated from Central Asia toward Eastern Europe in the 8th and 7th century BC, occupying today's Southern Russia and Ukraine and the Carpathian Basin and parts of Moldova and Dobruja. They disappeared from history after the Hunnish invasion of Europe in the 5th century AD, and Turkic (Avar, Batsange, etc.) and Slavic peoples probably assimilated most people speaking Scythian.[بحاجة لمصدر] However, in the Caucasus, the Ossetian language belonging to the Scythian linguistic continuum remains in use today[تحديث], while in Central Asia, some languages belonging to Eastern Iranic group are still spoken, namely Pashto, Pamir languages and Yaghnobi.
Corpus
Inscriptions
Some scholars ascribe certain inscribed objects found in the Carpathian Basin and in Central Asia to the Scythians, but the interpretation of these inscriptions remains disputed (given that nobody has definitively identified the alphabet or translated the content).
Saqqez inscription
An inscription from Saqqez, dating from the Scythian presence in Western Asia, and written in the Hieroglyphic Luwian script, may represent Scythian:[10]
Line | Phonetic transliteration | Scythian transliteration | English translation |
---|---|---|---|
1 | pa-tì-na-sa-nà tà-pá wá-s₆-na-m₅ XL was-was-ki XXX ár-s-tí-m₅ ś₃-kar-kar (HA) har-s₆-ta₅ LUGAL | patinasana tapa. vasnam: 40 vasaka 30 arzatam šikar. UTA harsta XŠAYAI. | Delivered dish. Value: 40 calves 30 silver šiqlu. And it was presented to the king. |
2 | par-tì-ta₅-wa₅ ki-ś₃-a₄-á KUR-u-pa-ti QU-wa-a₅ | Partitava xšaya DAHYUupati xva- | King Partitavas, the masters of the land pro- |
3 | i₅-pa-ś₂-a-m₂ | ipašyam | -perty |
The king Partitava mentioned in this inscription is the same individual as the Scythian king Pṛtatavah, whose name is attested as Bartatua in Assyrian records and as Protothyēs in Greek records.[11]
Issyk inscription
The Issyk inscription is not yet certainly deciphered, and is probably in a Scythian dialect, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language. János Harmatta, using the Kharoṣṭhī script, identified the language as a Khotanese Saka dialect spoken by the Kushans, tentatively translating:[12]
Line | Transliteration | English translation |
---|---|---|
1 | za(ṃ)-ri ko-la(ṃ) mi(ṃ)-vaṃ vaṃ-va pa-zaṃ pa-na de-ka mi(ṃ)-ri-to | The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, |
2 | ña-ka mi pa-zaṃ vaṃ-va va-za(ṃ)-na vaṃ. | then added cooked fresh butter on |
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الأسماء الشخصية
The primary sources for Scythian words remain the Scythian toponyms, tribal names, and numerous personal names in the ancient Greek texts and in the Greek inscriptions found in the Greek colonies on the Northern Black Sea Coast. These names suggest that the Sarmatian language had close similarities to modern Ossetian.[13]
Recorded Scythian personal names include:
الاسم | Attested forms | ملاحظات |
---|---|---|
*Ariyapaiϑah | باليونانية قديمة: Αριαπειθης | Composed of:[14][15][16][17] |
*Hiϑāmϑrauša | باليونانية قديمة: Ιδανθυρσος | Meaning "prospering the ally." Composed of:[18] |
*Hupāyā | باليونانية قديمة: Οποιη | Composed of:[15]
|
*Pālaka | باليونانية قديمة: Παλακος | From an earlier form *Pāδaka after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "tall-legged" and "long-legged." Composed of:[19][20]
|
*Pṛtatavah | آكادية: 𒁹𒁇𒋫𒌅𒀀 or Partatua[21] باليونانية قديمة: Προτοθυης |
Means "who is mighty in battle." Composed of:[22][23][24]
|
*Pr̥ϑutavā | Composed of:[25][26]
| |
*Šaitafarna | باليونانية قديمة: Σαιταφαρνος or باليونانية قديمة: Σαιταφαρνης | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaitafarna,[27] possibly meaning "with a bright farna," itself composed of:[28]
|
*Šaϑraka | باليونانية قديمة: Σατρακης | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaϑraka,[27] itself composed of:[29]
Cognate with Ossetian Æхсæртæг (Æxsærtæg)[30] and Æхсæртæггатӕ (Æxsærtæggatæ).[31] |
*Šīraka | باليونانية قديمة: Σιρακης | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[27] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[29]
|
*Skilura | باليونانية قديمة: Σκιλουρος | From an earlier form *Skiδura after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "sharp" and "victorious."[19] |
*Skula | باليونانية قديمة: Σκυλης | From the Scythian endonym *Skula, itself a later dialectal form of *Skuδa resulting from a sound change from /δ/ to /l/.[32] |
*Spakāya | آكادية: 𒁹𒅖𒉺𒅗𒀀𒀀[33] | Hypocoristic derivation from the word *spaka, meaning "dog."[34][35][16] |
*Spargapis | باليونانية قديمة: Σπαργαπισης | Composed of:[15][16][36][17]
*Spargapis and *Spargapaiϑah are variants of the same name.[14][15][36] |
*Spargapaiϑah | باليونانية قديمة: Σπαργαπειθης | Composed of:[15][36][16][17]
*Spargapaiϑah and *Spargapis are variants of the same name.[14][15][36] |
*Tigratavā | باليونانية قديمة: Τιργαταω | Means "with the strength of an arrow." Composed of:[37][15]
|
*Taumuriya | باليونانية قديمة: Τομυρις | Derived from a cognate of Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬊𐬑𐬨𐬀𐬥 (taoxman) and Old Persian 𐎫𐎢𐎶𐎠 (taumā), meaning "seed," "germ," and "kinship."[15] |
*Uxtamazatā | باليونانية قديمة: Οκταμασαδης | Means "possessing greatness through his words." Composed of:[15]
|
*Varika | باليونانية قديمة: Ορικος | Hypocorostic derivation from the word *vari-, meaning "chest armour, armour." Compare with Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (vaⁱri-), 𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬌 (uuari-) "chest armour."[15] |
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الأسماء القبلية
Recorded Scythian tribal names include:
Name | Attested forms | Notes |
---|---|---|
*Haxāϑrauša | باليونانية قديمة: Αγαϑυρσοι | Means "prospering the friend/socius." Composed of:[18]
|
*Šīraka | باليونانية قديمة: Σιρακες | From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[27] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[29]
|
<span lang="xsc-x-pontic-Latn" xml:lang="xsc-x-pontic-Latn" title="الترجمة اللفظية Scythian error: xsc-x-pontic is an IETF tag (help) " class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none">[38][39] | آكادية: 𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀
باليونانية قديمة: Σκυθαι |
*Skuδa, the Scythian endonym,[38][39]
From the Proto-Indo-European root skewd-, itself meaning حرفياً 'shooter, archer', whence also English "shoot".[40] |
*Skula | باليونانية قديمة: Σκωλοτοι[41][8] | Later form of *Skuδa resulting from the evolution of Proto-Scythian /δ/ into Scythian /l/.[38] |
*Paralāta | باليونانية قديمة: Παραλαται[41][8] | Cognate with Young Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬜𐬁𐬙𐬀 (Paraδāta), meaning "placed at the front."[16] |
Place names
Some scholars believe that many toponyms and hydronyms of the Russian and Ukrainian steppe have Scythian links. For example, Vasmer associates the name of the river Don with an assumed/reconstructed unattested Scythian word *dānu "water, river", and with Avestan dānu-, Pashto dand and Ossetian don.[42] The river names Don, Donets, Dnieper, Danube, and Dniester, and lake Donuzlav (the deepest one in Crimea) may also belong with the same word-group.[43]
Recorded Scythian place names include:
Name | Attested forms | Notes |
---|---|---|
*Baurustāna | باليونانية قديمة: Βορυσθενης | Means "place of beavers." Composed of:[44] |
*Dānu | باليونانية قديمة: Ταναις | Means "river."[15] |
*Pantikapa | باليونانية قديمة: Παντικαπαιον | Means "fish-path." Composed of:[45] |
*Rahā | باليونانية قديمة: Ρα | Means "wetness." Compare with Avestan 𐬭𐬀𐬢𐬵𐬁 (raŋhā) and Vedic Sanskrit रसा (rasā́).[46] |
*Varu | باليونانية قديمة: Οαρος | Means "broad."[47] |
Herodotus' Scythian etymologies
The Greek historian Herodotus provides another source of Scythian; he reports that the Scythians called the Amazons Oiorpata, and explains the name as a compound of oior, meaning "man", and pata, meaning "to kill" (Hist. 4,110).
- Most scholars associate oior "man" with Avestan vīra- "man, hero", Sanskrit vīra-, Latin vir (gen. virī) "man, hero, husband",[48] PIE *wiHrós. Various explanations account for pata "kill":
- Persian pat- "(to) kill", patxuste "killed";[49]
- Sogdian pt- "(to) kill", ptgawsty "killed";[50]
- Ossetian fædyn "cleave", Sanskrit pātayati "fell", PIE *peth₂- "fall".[51]
- Avestan paiti- "lord", Sanskrit páti, PIE *pótis, cf. Lat. potestate (i.e. "man-ruler");[52]
- Ossetian maryn "kill", Pashto mrəl, Sanskrit mārayati, PIE *mer- "die" (confusion of Greek Μ and Π);[53]
- Alternatively, one scholar suggests Iranic aiwa- "one" + warah- "breast",[54] the Amazons believed to have removed a breast to aid drawing a bow, according to some ancient folklorists, and as reflected in Greek folk-etymology: a- (privative) + mazos, "without breast".
Elsewhere Herodotus explains the name of the mythical one-eyed tribe Arimaspoi as a compound of the Scythian words arima, meaning "one", and spu, meaning "eye" (Hist. 4,27).
- Some scholars connect arima "one" with Ossetian ærmæst "only", Avestic airime "quiet", Greek erēmos "empty", PIE *h₁(e)rh₁mo-?, and spu "eye" with Avestic spas- "foretell", Sanskrit spaś-, PIE *speḱ- "see".[55]
- However, Iranic usually expresses "one" and "eye" with words like aiwa- and čašman- (Ossetian īw and cæst).
- Other scholars reject Herodotus' etymology and derive the ethnonym Arimaspoi from Iranic aspa- "horse" instead.[56]
- Or the first part of the name may reflect something like Iranic raiwant- "rich", cf. Ossetian riwæ "rich".[57]
الأسماء الدينية السكوذية
الاسم | Attested forms | ملاحظات |
---|---|---|
*Tapatī́ | باليونانية قديمة: Ταβιτι | Means “the Burning One” or “the Flaming One.”[58][59] |
*Api | باليونانية قديمة: Απι
|
Related to Avestan 𐬀𐬞𐬌 (api), "water."[61] |
*Targī̆tavah | باليونانية قديمة: Ταργιταος | Means "possessing the might of the goddess Tarkā." Composed of:[63]
|
باليونانية قديمة: Αρτιμπασα | Composed of:[61]
| |
*Apatura | باليونانية قديمة: Απατουρος | Means "swift water." Composed of:[64]
|
*Gaiϑāsūra | باليونانية قديمة: Γοιτοσυρος | Composed of:[16]
|
باليونانية قديمة: Θαγιμασαδας
|
Composed of:
| |
*Lipoxšaya | باليونانية قديمة: Λιποξαις | From an earlier form *Δipoxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "king of radiance" and "king of heaven." Composed of:[66]
|
*R̥buxšaya | باليونانية قديمة: Ἀρποξαις | Means "king of the airspace." Composed of:[67]
|
*Kolaxšaya | باليونانية قديمة: Κολαξαις لاتينية: Colaxes |
From an earlier form *Koδaxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "axe-wielding king," where the axe also has the meaning of "sceptre," as well as "blacksmith king," in the sense of "ruling king of the lower world." Composed of:[68]
|
پلني الأكبر
پلني الأكبر's Natural History (AD 77–79) derives the name of the Caucasus from the Scythian kroy-khasis = ice-shining, white with snow (cf. Greek cryos = ice-cold).
أرسطوفانس
In the comedy works of Aristophanes, the dialects of various Greek people are accurately imitated. In his Thesmophoriazusae, a Scythian archer (a member of a police force in Athens) speaks broken Greek, consistently omitting the final -s (-ς ) and -n (ν ), using the lenis in place of the aspirate, and once using ks (ξ ) in place of s (sigma); these may be used to elucidate the Scythian languages.[69]
Alanian
The Alanian language, as spoken by the Alans from about the 5th to the 11th centuries AD, formed a dialect directly descended from the earlier Scytho-Sarmatian languages, and forming in its turn the ancestor of the Ossetian language. Byzantine Greek authors recorded only a few fragments of this language.[70]
Unlike the Pontic Scythian language, Ossetian did not experience the evolution of the Proto-Scythian sound /d/ to /δ/ and then /l/, although the sound /d/ did evolve into /δ/ at the beginning of Ossetian words.[7]
انظر أيضاً
الهامش
- ^ Lubotsky 2002, p. 190.
- ^ Compare L. Zgusta, Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste [The Greek personal names of the Greek cities of the northern Black Sea coast], 1955.
- ^ Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 7 (3): 1–115. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2001.3.830.
- ^ E.g. Harmatta 1970.[صفحة مطلوبة]
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Reichert, 1989.[صفحة مطلوبة]
- ^ Novák 2013, p. 11.
- ^ أ ب ت Ivantchik 1999a, p. 156-158.
- ^ أ ب ت ث Novák 2013, p. 10.
- ^ J.P.Mallory (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Dearborn. p. 310. ISBN 9781884964985.
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 124.
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 123.
- ^ Harmatta 1992, p. 412.
- ^ Lincoln, Bruce (2014). "Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10)". Nordlit. 33 (33): 19–34. doi:10.7557/13.3188.
- ^ أ ب ت Hinz 1975.
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س Schmitt 2003.
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Schmitt 2018a.
- ^ أ ب ت Schmitt 2011.
- ^ أ ب Schwartz & Manaster Ramer 2019, p. 359-360.
- ^ أ ب Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 93.
- ^ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 88.
- ^ Ivantchik 1999b, p. 508-509: "Though Madyes himself is not mentioned in Akkadian texts, his father, the Scythian king Par-ta-tu-a, whose identification with Προτοθύης of Herodotus is certain."
- ^ Bukharin 2011, p. 63.
- ^ Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 94.
- ^ Melikov 2016, p. 78-80.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "PROTOTHYES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
- ^ Bukharin 2011.
- ^ أ ب ت ث Kullanda 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 273-274.
- ^ أ ب ت Bukharin 2013, p. 270-271.
- ^ Alemany 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Ivantchik 2005, p. 183.
- ^ Ivantchik 2018.
- ^ "Išpakaia [CHIEFTAIN OF THE SCYTHIANS] (RN)". Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus. University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
- ^ Ivantchik 2005, p. 188.
- ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 93–94.
- ^ أ ب ت ث Schmitt 2018b.
- ^ Mayor, Adrienne (2014). The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World. Princeton, United States: Princeton University Press. pp. 370–371. ISBN 978-0-691-14720-8.
- ^ أ ب ت Tokhtasyev 2005a, p. 68-84.
- ^ أ ب Tokhtasyev 2005b, p. 296.
- ^ Szemerényi 1980, p. 20-21.
- ^ أ ب Witczak 1999, p. 52-53.
- ^ M. Vasmer, Untersuchungen über die ältesten Wohnsitze der Slaven. Die Iranier in Südrußland, Leipzig 1923, 74.
- ^ Kretschmer, Paul (1935). "Zum Balkan-Skythischen". Glotta. 24 (1–2): 1–56 [7–56]. JSTOR 40265408.
- ^ Kullanda 2013, p. 39-41.
- ^ Diakonoff, I. M. (1985). "Media". In Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2.
- ^ Brunner, C. J. (1986). "ARANG". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
Middle Persian Arang/Arag renders Avestan Raŋhā, which is cognate with the Scythian name Rhâ (*Rahā) transmitted by Ptolemy
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 129.
- ^ "Vir – the Latin Dictionary".
- ^ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
- ^ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
- ^ L. Zgusta, "Skythisch οἰόρπατα «ἀνδροκτόνοι» ", Annali dell’Istituto Universario Orientale di Napoli 1 (1959) pp. 151–156.
- ^ Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 15.
- ^ V.I. Abaev, Osetinskij jazyk i fol’klor, Moscow / Leningrad 1949, vol. 1, 172, 176, 188.
- ^ Hinge 2005, pp. 94–98
- ^ J. Marquart, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte von Eran, Göttingen 1905, 90–92; Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 12; H.H. Schaeder, Iranica. I: Das Auge des Königs, Berlin 1934, 16–19.
- ^ W. Tomaschek, "Kritik der ältesten Nachrichten über den skythischen Norden", Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 116 (1888), 715–780, here: 761; K. Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin 1893, vol. 3, 305–306; R. Grousset, L’empire des steppes, Paris 1941, 37 n. 3; I. Lebedensky, Les Scythes. La civilisation des steppes (VIIe-IIIe siècles av. J.-C.), Paris 2001, 93.
- ^ Hinge 2005, pp. 89–94
- ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-199-28075-9.
- ^ Jones, Lindsay (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 8205–8208.
- ^ Cheung, Johnny (2007). Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 378–379. ISBN 978-9-004-15496-4.
- ^ أ ب ت Ustinova 1999, p. 67-128.
- ^ Raevskiy 1993.
- ^ Tokhtasyev 2013.
- ^ Ustinova 1999, p. 29-66.
- ^ Herzfeld, Ernst (1947). Zoroaster and His World. Vol. 2. Princeton University Press. p. 516.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 29-31.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 31-32.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 48-52.
- ^ Donaldson, John William (1844). Varronianus: A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Philological Study of the Latin Language (in الإنجليزية). J. and J. J. Deighton. p. 32.
- ^ Ladislav Zgusta, "The old Ossetian Inscription from the River Zelenčuk" (Veröffentlichungen der Iranischen Kommission = Sitzungsberichte der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse 486) Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1987. ISBN 3-7001-0994-6 in Kim, op.cit., 54.
ببليوجرافيا
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- Ivantchik, Askold I. (1999a). "Une légende sur l'origine des Scythes (HDT. IV 5–7) et le problème des sources du Scythicos logos d'Hérodote" [A Legend on the Origin of the Scythians (Hdt. IV 5–7) and the problems of the sources of Herodotus's Scythicos logos]. Revue des Études Grecques [Review of Greek Studies]. 112 (1): 141–92. doi:10.3406/reg.1999.4355. JSTOR 44260011.
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- Ivantchik, Askold I. (2005). Накануне колонизации. Северное Причерноморье и степные кочевники VIII – VII вв. до н.э. в античной литературной традиции: фольклор, литература и история [On the eve of Colonisation. The Northern Black Sea Region and the Steppe Nomads of the 8th – 7th centuries BC in the Ancient Literary Tradition: Folklore, Literature and History]. Berlin, Germany; Moscow, Russia: Eurasien-Abteilung des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Germany); Центр сравнительного изучения древних цивилизаций Института всеобщей истории РАН (Russia); Paleograph Press. ISBN 978-5-895-26015-9.
- Ivantchik, Askold (2018). "Scythians". Encyclopædia Iranica. New York City, United States: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation; Brill Publishers. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
- Kullanda, S. V.; Raevskiy, D. S. (2004). "Эминак в ряду владык Скифии" [Eminakes, King of Scythia] (PDF). Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History] (in الروسية). 248 (1): 79–95. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
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- Mayrhofer, M.: Einiges zu den Skythen, ihrer Sprache, ihrem Nachleben. Vienna 2006.
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- Novák, Ľubomír (2013). Problem of Archaism and Innovation in the Eastern Iranian Languages. Prague, Czech Republic: Charles University. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
- Raevskiy, Dmitriy (1993). Marazov, Ivan (ed.). Scythian Mythology. Sofia, Bulgaria: Secor Publishers. ISBN 978-9-548-25002-3.
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- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2018a). "SCYTHIAN LANGUAGE". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (2018b). "MASSAGETAE". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
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- Tokhtasyev, Sergey (2005). "Проблема Скифского Языка в Современной Науке" [The Problem of the Scythian Language in Contemporary Studies]. In Cojocaru, Victor (ed.). Ethnic Contacts and Cultural Exchanges North and West of the Black Sea from the Greek Colonization to the Ottoman Conquest ; [Proceedings of the International Symposium Ethnic contacts and Cultural Exchanges North and West of the Black Sea, Iaşi, June 12–17, 2005]. Iași, Romania: Trinitas. pp. 59–108. ISBN 978-9-737-83450-8.
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- Zgusta, L.: Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste. Die ethnischen Verhältnisse, namentlich das Verhältnis der Skythen und Sarmaten, im Lichte der Namenforschung, Prague 1955.
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