قرن 18

(تم التحويل من القرن 18)
For other uses, see قرن 18 (توضيح).
الألفية: الألفية 2
القرون:
خطوط زمنية:
زعماء الدول:
  • القرن 17
  • القرن 18
  • القرن 19
العقود:
التصنيفات: المواليد – الوفيات
التأسيسات – الانحلالات
الحدود السياسية في بداية عام 1700
Storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789, an iconic event of the الثورة الفرنسية.
Development of the Watt steam engine في أواخر القرن 18 كان عنصراً هاماً في الثورة الصناعية في أوروپا.
The American Revolutionary War took place in the late 18th century.

القرن الثامن عشر هو الفترة الزمنية الممتدة من اليوم الأول لعام 1701 إلى اليوم الأخير من عام 1800 حسب التقويم الميلادي. خلال هذا القرن تَتوّج عصر التنوير بقيام الثورة الفرنسية والثورة الأمريكية فيما بعد. ازداد العلم والفلسفة بشكل بارز. حلم الفلاسفة بعصر أكثر إشراقا. تحول هذا الحلم إلى واقع مع الثورة الفرنسية، على الرغم من التعرض للخطر في وقت لاحق في عهد الإرهاب (1793–1794) من قبل ماكسمليان روبسبير. في البداية، العديد من الممالك في أوروبا اعتنقت أهداف حركة التنوير الفلسفية، ولكن مع الثورة الفرنسية كانوا يخشون فقدان قوتهم وشكلوا تحالفات واسعة للثورة المضادة. [1][2][3]

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.[4][5] To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century[6] may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815[7] or even later.[8]

The period is also known as the "century of lights" or the "century of reason". In continental Europe, philosophers dreamed of a brighter age. For some, this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789, though this was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars.

The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring states of the Prussia, Russia, and Austria, which partitioned the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between themselves, changing the landscape of Central Europe and politics for the next hundred years.

The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements of the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman Empire military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century. In Southwest and Central Asia, Nader Shah led successful military campaigns and major invasions, which indirectly led to the founding of the Durrani Empire.

The European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the Age of Sail. European colonization intensified in present-day Indonesia, where the Dutch East India Company established increasing levels of control over the Mataram Sultanate. Mainland Southeast Asia would be embroiled in the Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars and the Tây Sơn rebellion, while in East Asia, the century marked the High Qing era and the continual seclusion policies of the Tokugawa shogunate.

Various conflicts throughout the century, including the War of the Spanish Succession and the French and Indian War saw Great Britain triumphing over its European rivals to become the preeminent colonial power in Europe. However, Britain lost its colonies in North America after the American Revolutionary War, which went on to form the United States, initiating the decolonization of the Americas. The European colonization of Australia and New Zealand began during the late half of the century.

In the Indian subcontinent, the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb marked the end of medieval India and the beginning of an increasing level of European influence and control in the region, which coincided with a period of rapid Maratha expansion. After the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire became less powerful. In 1739, Nader Shah invaded and defeated the Mughal Empire. Later, his general Ahmad Shah Abdali scored another defeat against the Mughals in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.[9] By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began to conquer the eastern parts of India, a process which accelerated after their victory over the Mughal emperor, Nawab of Bengal and their French allies at the Battle of Plassey.[10][9] Mughal emperor transformed into mere puppet of British.[9] By the end of the century, Company rule in India had come to cover more regions within South Asia, the British would also expand to the south, participating in the Anglo-Mysore Wars against the Kingdom of Mysore, governed by Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali.[11][12]

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أحداث

For دليل زمني, see Timeline of the 18th century.
انظر أيضاً: Georgian era

1701–1750

Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1700
The Battle of Poltava in 1709 turned the Russian Empire into a European power.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough

1751–1800


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شخصيات هامة

اختراعات واكتشافات

المقالة الرئيسية: Timeline of historic inventions § 18th century, and Timeline of scientific discoveries § 18th century
The Spinning Jenny

الإنجازات الأدبية والفلسفية

المقالة الرئيسية: 18th century in literature and 18th century in philosophy

الأعمال الموسيقية

المراجع

  1. ^ "A guide to Scottish clans". Retrieved 2009-04-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |(empty string)= (help)
  2. ^ . ISBN 978-0-19-822548-5. OCLC 185538307. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |سنة= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |عنوان= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |مؤلف= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |ناشر= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions, موسوعة بريتانيكا Archived أغسطس 7, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ^ Anderson, M. S. (1979). Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822548-5. OCLC 185538307.
  5. ^ Ribeiro, Aileen (2002). Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 (revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09151-9. OCLC 186413657.
  6. ^ Baines, Paul (2004). The Long 18th Century. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-81372-0.
  7. ^ Marshall, P. J., ed. (2001). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-924677-9. OCLC 174866045., "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1
  8. ^ O'Gorman, Frank (1997). The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series). A Hodder Arnold Publication. ISBN 978-0-340-56751-7. OCLC 243883533.
  9. ^ أ ب ت Chandra, Bipin. Mordern India (in الإنجليزية). India.
  10. ^ Campbell, John; Watts, William (1760). Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757. A. Millar, London.
  11. ^ Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 207, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0, https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207 
  12. ^ Allana, Gulam (1988). Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78. ISBN 9789694070919. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  13. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions, Encyclopædia Britannica Archived أغسطس 7, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5

للاستزادة

  • Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History (1994) 890pp
  • Klekar, Cynthia. “Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature.” Innovative Course Design Winner. American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies: Wake Forest University, 2004. <Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)>. Refereed.
  • Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free
  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
  • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 (1973) online; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
    • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914 (1977) online
  • The Wallace Collection, London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.


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وصلات خارجية

الكلمات الدالة:
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