گرينوبل

گرينوبل
Grenoble
Panorama grenoble.png
من أعلى اليسار: پانوراما المدينة، ترام گرينوبل، قصر سان-أندريه، مصارف نهر إزار.
علم گرينوبل Grenoble
Flag
درع گرينوبل Grenoble
Coat of arms
Location of گرينوبل
Grenoble
البلدفرنسا
المنطقةأوڤرن-رون-ألپ
الإقليمIsère
الدائرةگرينوبل
بين‌التجمعاتAgglomeration community of the Grenoble Alpes Métropole
الحكومة
 • العمدة (2014–2020) إريك پيول (حزب الخضر)
المساحة
1
18٫44 كم² (7٫12 ميل²)
التعداد
 (2008)
156٬659
 • الكثافة8٬500/km2 (22٬000/sq mi)
منطقة التوقيتUTC+01:00 (CET)
 • الصيف (التوقيت الصيفي)UTC+02:00 (CEST)
INSEE/الرمز البريدي
38185 /38000, 38100
المنسوب212–500 m (696–1،640 ft)
(avg. 398 m أو 1،306 ft)
1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.

گرينوبل Grenoble (/ɡrəˈnoʊbəl/;[1]النطق الفرنسي: [ɡʁə.nɔbl]; Arpitan: Grenoblo)، هي مدينة في جنوب شرق فرنسا، على سفح جبال الألپ الفرنسية حيث يلتقي نهر دراك بنهر إزار. تقع المدينة في منطقة رون-ألپ، وهي عاصمة إقليم إزار. لقربها من الجبال، وكذلك لكبر مساحتها، تشتهر "بعاصمة الألپ".

يرجع تاريخ گرينبول إلى أكثر من 2000 سنة، عندما كانت قرية گالية صغيرة. بعد أن اكتسبت فيه مكانتها بأن أصبحت عاصمة دوفان في القرن 11، ظلت گرينوبل مدينة برلمانية ومدينة حامية على حدود مملكة فرنسا.

ازدادت أهمية گرينوبل مع تطورها الصناعي، وشهدت المدينة توسعاً اقتصادياً في القرون الأخيرة. ازدهرت صناعة القفازات في المدينة في القرنين 18 و19، واستمرت مع تطور صناعة الطاقة الكهرومائية القوية في أواخر القرن 19 وأوائل القرن 20 وانتهت بازدهارها الاقتصادي فيما بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية والممثلة في استضافتها للألعاب الاولمپية الشتوية عام 1968. الآن، تعتبر المدينة مركزاً علمياً بارزاً في أوروپا.[2][3]

في تعداد 2008 كان عدد سكان مدينة (كميون) گرينوبل 156.659 نسمة. ووصل عدد سكان منطقة گرينوبل الكبرى في تعداد 2008 إلى 664.832 نسمة. يسمى سكان المدينة "گرينوبليون".


التاريخ

العصر العتيق

أطلال الأسوار الرومانية.

The first references to what is now Grenoble date back to 43 BC. Cularo was at that time a village of the Allobroges Gallic tribe, near a bridge across the Isère. Three centuries later and with insecurity rising in the late Roman empire, a strong wall was built around the small town in 286 AD.[4]

The Emperor Gratian visited Cularo and, touched by the people's welcome, made the village a Roman city.[5] In honour of this, Cularo was renamed Gratianopolis ("city of Gratian") in 381. Through regular historical sound shifts, this later became Graignovol[6] during the Middle Ages, and this then became Grenoble.

Christianity spread to the region during the 4th century, and the diocese of Grenoble was founded in 377 AD. From that time on, the bishops exercised significant political power over the city. Until the French Revolution, they styled themselves the "bishops and princes of Grenoble".[7]

العصور الوسطى

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the city became part of the first Burgundian kingdom in the 5th century and of the later Kingdom of Burgundy until 1032, when it was integrated into the Holy Roman Empire. The Burgundian rule was interrupted between 942 and 970 by Arab rule based in Fraxinet.

Grenoble grew significantly in the 11th century when the Counts of Albon chose the city as the capital of their territories. Their possessions at the time were a patchwork of several territories sprawled across the region,[8] and the central position of Grenoble allowed the Counts to strengthen their authority. When they later adopted the title of "Dauphins", Grenoble became the capital of the State of Dauphiné.

Despite their status, the Counts had to share authority over the city with the Bishop of Grenoble. One of the most famous of those was Saint Hugh. Under his rule, the city's bridge was rebuilt, and a regular and leper hospital was built.[9]

Coat of arms of the Dauphiné after becoming a province of France

The inhabitants of Grenoble took advantage of the conflicts between the Counts and the bishops and obtained the recognition of a Charter of Customs that guaranteed their rights.[10] That charter was confirmed by Kings Louis XI in 1447 and Francis I in 1541.

In 1336, the last Dauphin Humbert II founded a court of justice, the Conseil delphinal (fr), which settled at Grenoble in 1340. He also established the University of Grenoble in 1339. Without an heir and deep into debt, Humbert sold his state to France in 1349, on the condition that the heir to the French crown used the title of Dauphin. The first one, the future Charles V, spent nine months in Grenoble. The city remained the capital of the Dauphiné,[11] henceforth a province of France, and the Estates of Dauphiné were created.

The only Dauphin who governed his province was the future Louis XI, whose "reign" lasted from 1447 to 1456. It was only under his rule that Dauphiné properly joined the Kingdom of France. The Old Conseil Delphinal became a Parlement (the third in France after the Parliaments of Paris and Toulouse), strengthening the status of Grenoble as a Provincial capital. He also ordered the construction of the Palais du Parlement (finished under Francis I) and ensured that the Bishop pledged allegiance, thus unifying the political control of the city.[12]

At that time, Grenoble was a crossroads between Vienne, Geneva, Italy, and Savoy. It was the industrial centre of the Dauphiné and the province's biggest city, but a rather small one.

عصر النهضة

François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières

Owing to Grenoble's geographical situation, French troops were garrisoned in the city and its region during the Italian Wars. Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I went several times to Grenoble. Its people consequently had to suffer from the exactions of the soldiers.

The nobility of the region took part in various battles (Marignano, Pavia) and in doing so gained significant prestige.[13] The best-known of its members was Bayard, "the knight without fear and beyond reproach".

Grenoble suffered as a result of the French Wars of Religion. The Dauphiné was indeed an important settlement for Protestants and therefore experienced several conflicts. The baron des Adrets, the leader of the Huguenots, pillaged the Cathedral of Grenoble and destroyed the tombs of the former Dauphins.

In August 1575, Lesdiguières became the new leader of the Protestants and, thanks to the accession of Henry IV to the throne of France, allied himself with the governor and the lieutenant general of the Dauphiné. But this alliance did not bring an end to the conflicts. Indeed, a Catholic movement, the Ligue, which took Grenoble in December 1590, refused to make peace. After months of assaults, Lesdiguières defeated the Ligue and took back Grenoble. He became the leader of the entire province.[14]

Lesdiguières became the lieutenant-general of the Dauphiné and administered the Province from 1591 to 1626. He began the construction of the Bastille to protect the city and ordered the construction of new walls, increasing the city's size. He also constructed the Hôtel Lesdiguières, built new fountains, and dug sewers.[15]

In 1689, the bishop Étienne Le Camus launched the construction of Saint-Louis Church.

من لويس الرابع عشر حتى الثورة الفرنسية

Grenoble plan-relief (1848)
Day of the Tiles, 1890 painting by Alexandre Debelle,
(Musée de la Révolution française)

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV caused the departure of 2,000 Protestants from Grenoble, weakening the city's economy.[16] However, it also weakened the competing glove industry of Grasse, leaving the glove factories of Grenoble without any competition.[17] This allowed a stronger economic development for the city during the 18th century. At the beginning of that century, only 12 glovers made 15,000 dozen gloves each year; by 1787, 64 glovers made 160,000 dozen gloves each year.[17]

The city gained some notoriety on 7 June 1788 when the townspeople assaulted troops of Louis XVI in the "Day of the Tiles".[11] The people attacked the royal troops to prevent an expulsion of the notables of the city, which would have seriously endangered the economic prosperity of Grenoble. Following these events, the Assembly of Vizille took place. Its members organized the meeting of the old Estates General, thus beginning the French Revolution. During the Revolution, Grenoble was represented in Paris by two illustrious notables, Jean Joseph Mounier and Antoine Barnave.

In 1790, the Dauphiné was divided into three departments, and Grenoble became the chef-lieu of the Isère department. Only two refractory priests were executed at Grenoble during the Reign of Terror.[18] Pope Pius VI, prisoner of France, spent two days at Grenoble in 1799[19] before going to Valence where he died at 81 six weeks after his arrival.

القرن 19

الأسوار الدفاعية حول البلدة.

The establishment of the Empire was overwhelmingly approved (in Isère, the results showed 82,084 yes and only 12 no).[20] Grenoble held for the second time a prisoner Pope in 1809, when Pius VII spent 10 days in the city en route to his exile in Fontainebleau.

In 1813, Grenoble was under threat from the Austrian army, which invaded Switzerland and Savoy. The well-defended city contained the Austrian attacks, and the French army defeated the Austrians, forcing them to withdraw at Geneva. However, the later invasion of France in 1814 resulted in the capitulation of the troops and the occupation of the city.

Napoleon's Return from Elba by Charles de Steuben, 1818

During his return from the island of Elba in 1815, Napoleon took a road that led him near Grenoble at Laffrey. There he met the Royalist Régiment d'Angoulême (former 5th) of Louis XVIII's Royal Army. Napoleon stepped toward the soldiers and said these famous words: "If there is among you a soldier who wants to kill his Emperor, here I am." The soldiers all joined his cause. After that, Napoleon was acclaimed at Grenoble and General Jean Gabriel Marchand could not prevent Napoleon from entering the city through the Bonne gate. He said later: "From Cannes to Grenoble, I still was an adventurer; in that last city, I came back a sovereign".[21] But after the defeat of Waterloo, the region suffered from a new invasion of Austrian and Sardinian troops.

Fountain of the Three Orders (1897)

The 19th century saw significant industrial development of Grenoble. The glove factories reached their Golden Age, and their products were exported to the United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia.[22]

General Haxo transformed the Bastille fortress, which took on its present aspect between 1824 and 1848. The Second Empire saw the construction of the French railway network, and the first trains arrived at Grenoble in 1858. Shortly thereafter Grenoble experienced widespread destruction by extensive flooding in 1859.

In 1869, engineer Aristide Bergès played a major role in industrializing hydroelectricity production. With the development of his paper mills, he accelerated the economic development of the Grésivaudan valley and Grenoble.[بحاجة لمصدر]

On 4 August 1897, a stone and bronze fountain was inaugurated in Grenoble to commemorate the pre-revolutionary events of June 1788. Built by the sculptor Henri Ding, the Fountain of the Three Orders, which represents three characters, is located on Place Notre-Dame. People in Grenoble interpret these characters as follows: "Is it raining?" inquires the third estate; "Please heaven it had rained", lament the clergy; and "It will rain", proclaims the nobility.[23]

القرن 20

Gate of the exposition in 1925

World War I accelerated Grenoble's economic development.[24] To sustain the war effort, new hydroelectric industries developed along the various rivers of the region, and several existing companies moved into the armaments industry (for example in Livet-et-Gavet). Electrochemical factories were also established in the area surrounding Grenoble, initially to produce chemical weapons. This development resulted in significant immigration to Grenoble, particularly from Italian workers who settled in the Saint-Laurent neighborhood.

Gate of the exposition in 1925

The economic development of the city was highlighted by the organization of the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism in 1925, which was visited by more than 1 million people.[25][مرجع دائرة مفرغة] The organization of this exhibition forced the military to remove the old city walls and allowed the expansion of the city to the south. This exhibition also highlighted the city's hydropower industry and the region's tourist attractions.

The site of the exhibition became an urban park in 1926, named Parc Paul Mistral after the death of the mayor in 1932. The only building of this exhibition remaining in the park is the crumbling Tour Perret, which has been closed to the public since 1960 due to its very poor state of maintenance.

World War II

During World War II, at the Battle of France, the German invasion was stopped near Grenoble at Voreppe by the forces of General Cartier. The French forces resisted until the armistice, after which Grenoble was part of the French State before an Italian occupation from 1942 to 1943. The relative tolerance of the Italian occupiers towards the Jewish populations resulted in a significant number moving to the region from the German-occupied parts of France.[26]

Grenoble was extremely active in the Résistance against the occupation. Its action was symbolized by figures such as Eugène Chavant, Léon Martin, and Marie Reynoard.[27] The University of Grenoble supported the clandestine operations and provided false documentation for young people to prevent them from being assigned to STO.

In September 1943, German troops occupied Grenoble, escalating the conflict with the clandestine movements. On 11 November 1943 (the anniversary of the armistice of 1918), massive strikes and demonstrations took place in front of the local collaboration offices. In response, the occupiers arrested 400 demonstrators in the streets. On 13 November, the resistance blew up the artillery at the Polygon, which was a psychological shock for an enemy who then intensified the repression. On 25 November, the occupiers killed 11 members of the Résistance organizations of Grenoble. This violent crackdown was nicknamed "Grenoble's Saint-Bartholomew".[28] From these events, Grenoble was styled by the Free French Forces the title of Capital of the Maquis on the antennas of the BBC.[29]

This event only intensified the activities of Grenoble's resistance movements. The Germans could not prevent the destruction of their new arsenal on 2 December at the Bonne Barracks. After the Normandy landing, resistance operations reached their peak, with numerous attacks considerably hampering the activity of German troops. With the landing in Provence, German troops evacuated the city on 22 August 1944. On 5 November 1944, General Charles de Gaulle came to Grenoble and bestowed on the city the Compagnon de la Libération to recognise "a heroic city at the peak of the French resistance and combat for the liberation".[27]

بعد الحرب

The Hôtel de Ville

In 1955, future physics Nobel Prize laureate Louis Néel created the Grenoble Center for Nuclear Studies (CENG), resulting in the birth of the Grenoble model, a combination of research and industry. The first stone was laid in December 1956.

In 1968, Grenoble hosted the X Olympic Winter Games. This event helped modernize the city with the development of infrastructure such as an airport, motorways, the new Hôtel de Ville (town hall), and a new train station.[30] It also helped the development of ski resorts like Chamrousse, Les Deux Alpes, and Villard-de-Lans.[31]

Since 2017, anarchist movements have been behind a wave of arson attacks in Grenoble. During the last week of August 2023, a police operation was carried out in the Saint-Bruno district of Grenoble, after the city experienced a new series of gangland killings during the summer. Numerous recurring security problems were observed in the immediate vicinity of Place Saint-Bruno and Cours Berriat, particularly related to drug trafficking and arms trafficking.[32]

الجغرافيا

گرينوبل وألپ دوفان


المناخ


بيانات المناخ لـ گرينوبل-سان گيوار (متوسطات 1981–2010)
الشهر ينا فب مار أبر ماي يون يول أغس سبت أكت نوف ديس السنة
القصوى القياسية °س (°ف) 20.1
(68.2) 		24.3
(75.7) 		25.7
(78.3) 		29.1
(84.4) 		32.5
(90.5) 		36.2
(97.2) 		39.8
(103.6) 		38.6
(101.5) 		35.3
(95.5) 		30.2
(86.4) 		23.6
(74.5) 		20.0
(68.0) 		39.8
(103.6)
متوسط القصوى اليومية °س (°ف) 5.9
(42.6) 		7.8
(46.0) 		12.0
(53.6) 		15.3
(59.5) 		19.9
(67.8) 		23.8
(74.8) 		26.9
(80.4) 		26.4
(79.5) 		21.8
(71.2) 		16.9
(62.4) 		10.2
(50.4) 		6.4
(43.5) 		16.2
(61.2)
متوسط الدنيا اليومية °س (°ف) −1.2
(29.8) 		−0.4
(31.3) 		2.0
(35.6) 		4.4
(39.9) 		8.9
(48.0) 		12.0
(53.6) 		14.2
(57.6) 		14.0
(57.2) 		10.9
(51.6) 		7.8
(46.0) 		2.7
(36.9) 		−0.1
(31.8) 		6.3
(43.3)
الصغرى القياسية °س (°ف) −26.1
(−15.0) 		−23.4
(−10.1) 		−12.9
(8.8) 		−8.5
(16.7) 		−2.3
(27.9) 		4.3
(39.7) 		6.5
(43.7) 		3.2
(37.8) 		−2.4
(27.7) 		−5.1
(22.8) 		−14.0
(6.8) 		−27.5
(−17.5) 		−27.5
(−17.5)
متوسط تساقط الأمطار mm (inches) 61
(2.4) 		52
(2.0) 		66
(2.6) 		83
(3.3) 		104
(4.1) 		75
(3.0) 		59
(2.3) 		67
(2.6) 		106
(4.2) 		106
(4.2) 		88
(3.5) 		67
(2.6) 		934
(36.8)
Mean monthly ساعات سطوع الشمس 95 112 170 183 219 255 290 256 193 137 84 72 2٬066
Source: Météo France[33]

السكان

التعداد التاريخي
السنةتعداد±%
179320٬019—    
180020٬654+3.2%
180622٬129+7.1%
182123٬629+6.8%
183124٬888+5.3%
184130٬824+23.9%
185131٬340+1.7%
186134٬726+10.8%
187242٬660+22.8%
188151٬371+20.4%
189160٬439+17.7%
190168٬615+13.5%
191177٬438+12.9%
192177٬409−0.0%
1946102٬161+32.0%
1954116٬440+14.0%
1962156٬707+34.6%
1968161٬616+3.1%
1975166٬037+2.7%
1982156٬637−5.7%
1990150٬768−3.7%
1999153٬317+1.7%
2006156٬107+1.8%
2011157٬424+0.8%

المعالم الرئيسية

الباستيل من وسط المدينة.

الباستيل

"Les Bulles": the cable cars
قصر برلمان دوفان.

الباستيل هو سلسلة قديمة من التحصينات، الرابضة على سفح الجبل المطل على گرينوبل، ويمكن رؤيته من العديد من النقاط في المدينة. والباستيل هو أحد أكثر مراكز السياحة بالمدينة جذباً للزوار، وهو نقطة مشاهدة للمدينة والجبال المحيطة.

بالرغم من أن الباستيل قد بدأ في العصور الوسطى، إلا أنه شهد إضافات مكثفة في السنوات الأخيرة تشمل شبكة تحصينات شبه نفقية. يعتبر الباستيل من أفضل الأمثلة على تحصينات القرن 19 في أرجاء فرنسا، ويمثل نقطة استراتيجية هامة على جبهة الألپ.

منذ عام 134، أصبح الباستيل وجهة لما يطلق عليه المحليون "التلفريك"، منظومة من العربات الكبلية بيضاوية الشكل ("Les Bulles") التي توفر لراكبيها رؤية ممتازة فوق نهر إزار. لمن يختارون ركوب هذا التلفريك، تبلغ تكلفة الرحلة 5.65 يورو. بدلاً من ذلك، يقوم الكثير من السكان المحليين بالمشي أو الهرولة إلى أعلى الجبل.


قصر برلمان دوفان

متحف گرينوبل

المتحف الأثري لسان لورين

Archaeological museum with the vestiges protected by a new cover of glass and metal


التعليم والعلوم

التعليم الثانوي

التعليم العالي

الميدان الرئيسي لحرم جامعة گرينوبل.

تحوي المدينة على جامعات عريقة تعرف بجامعة گرينوبل:-

  • الأولى متخصصة في الطب والعلوم والرياضيات.
  • الثانية متخصصة في الحقوق و الاقتصاد والعلوم الاجتماعية.
  • الثالثة متخصصة في الآداب و الغات و الأنسانيات.


العلوم والهندسة

Site of European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institut Laue-Langevin and European Molecular Biology Laboratory at the Western end of the polygone scientifique


مجتمع المعرفة والابتكار

تعليم نهاية الأسبوع

الاقتصاد

الصناعة

الشركات

المكتب الرئيسي لگلانيت
  • في 2011، كانت أكبر الشركات في گرينوبل هي:[34]
الشركة، الموقع عدد الموظفين
 القطاع
STMicroelectronics, Grenoble and Crolles 5,979 صناعة أشباه الموصلات
Schneider Electric, Grenoble agglomeration 4,915 الأجهزة الكهربائية
Caterpillar France, Grenoble and Echirolles 1,865 المعدات الثقيلة
هيولت-پاكرد فرنسا, Eybens 1,814 علوم الحاسوب
بكتون ديكينسون, Pont-de-Claix 1,736 R&D and production of advanced systems for drugs administration
كارفور, Grenoble agglomeration 1,165 سوپر ماركت
Capgemini, Grenoble 1,100 استشارات وادارة خدمات تكنولوجيا الاتصالات
Groupe Casino, Grenoble agglomeration 990 سوپر ماركت
Samse, Grenoble agglomeration 965 مورد مواد بناء
سويتك، برنين 952 Semiconductor manufacturer specialized in the production of SOI wafers


الرياضة

النقل

انظر أيضاً: ترام گرينوبل
محطة القطار والترام.
الطريق رقم 1 في گرينوبل.


الثقافة

أشخاص من گرينوبل

العلاقات الدولية

انظر أيضاً: قائمة المدن والبلدات الشقيقة في فرنسا


المدن والبلدات الشقيقة

گرينوبل على توأمة مع:[35]



في الثقافة العامة

معرض الصور

گرينوبل (الجهة الغربية) من الباستيل.
Grenoble from the Vercors ranges
گرينوبل ليلاً من الباستيل
  • Minatec :le centre des micro-nano technologies

    Minatec :le centre des micro-nano technologies

  • Ecole supérieure de commerce de Grenoble à Europole

    Ecole supérieure de commerce de Grenoble à Europole

  • Immeubles d'affaires à Europole

    Immeubles d'affaires à Europole

  • Les "trois tours"

    Les "trois tours"

  • Immeuble grands boulevards

    Immeuble grands boulevards

  • Tramway et église St-Jean

    Tramway et église St-Jean

  • cafés place Grenette

    cafés place Grenette

  • La ville vue du jardin des dauphins

    La ville vue du jardin des dauphins

  • Façade place Victor Hugo

    Façade place Victor Hugo

  • Halle Ste-Claire

    Halle Ste-Claire

  • Immeuble aux éléphants, rue Félix Poulat

    Immeuble aux éléphants, rue Félix Poulat

  • Jardin de ville

    Jardin de ville

  • خطأ في إنشاء صورة مصغرة: الملف مفقود

    Musée dauphinois

  • Massif de la Chartreuse depuis le pont de Catane

    Massif de la Chartreuse depuis le pont de Catane

  • Vue de Grenoble en 2002, à gauche le téléphérique, au centre l'Isère, au fond la chaîne de Belledonne, 2 980 mètres au Grand Pic

    Vue de Grenoble en 2002, à gauche le téléphérique, au centre l'Isère, au fond la chaîne de Belledonne, 2 980 mètres au Grand Pic

  • Avenue Alsace-Lorraine

    Avenue Alsace-Lorraine

انظر أيضاً

المصادر

  • INSEE commune file
  •  هذه المقالة تضم نصاً من مطبوعة هي الآن مشاع: هربرمان, تشارلز, ed. (1913). "Grenoble" . الموسوعة الكاثوليكية. Robert Appleton Company. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |1=, |coauthors=, and |month= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). دائرة المعارف البريطانية (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)

الهوامش

  1. ^ "Grenoble". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
  2. ^ Graff, James (22 August 2004). "Secret Capitals". Time. New York. Retrieved 29 October 2009.
  3. ^ Pentland, William (9 July 2013). "World's 15 Most Inventive Cities". Forbes. New York. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
  4. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p18
  5. ^ Louis, Jaucourt de chevalier (1757). "Grenoble". Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert - Collaborative Translation Project: 942. hdl:2027/spo.did2222.0000.365.
  6. ^ "Musée Dauphinois". Metrodoc.la-metro.org. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  7. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p. 40.
  8. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p. 9.
  9. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p. 27.
  10. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p. 32.
  11. ^ أ ب  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Grenoble" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). دائرة المعارف البريطانية. Vol. 12 (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 579–580. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  12. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p. 58.
  13. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p78
  14. ^ Petite Histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p88
  15. ^ Histoire de Grenoble, Vidal Chaumel, Éditions Privat, p.68,123,126,223
  16. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p97
  17. ^ أ ب Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p98
  18. ^ "Il y a 250 ans naissait Joseph Chanrion (1756–1830)" (PDF). Union de Quartier Mutualité-Préfecture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2013.
  19. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1910). "Diocese of Grenoble" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  20. ^ Petite Histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p115
  21. ^ Petite histoire du Dauphiné, Félix Vernay, 1933, p120
  22. ^ L’histoire de l'Isère en BD, Tome 5, Gilbert Bouchard, 2004
  23. ^ Grenoble, cœur de pierre, Françoise Goyet, Edi Loire, 1996, (ISBN 2840840464)
  24. ^ L’histoire de l'Isère en BD, Tome 5, Gilbert Bouchard, 2004, p40
  25. ^ fr:Exposition internationale de la houille blanche#Les chiffres
  26. ^ L’histoire..., Tome 5, Gilbert Bouchard, 2004, p45
  27. ^ أ ب "Order of the Liberation". Archived from the original on 20 October 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  28. ^ "Ordre de la Libération". 25 February 2008. Archived from the original on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  29. ^ "Grenoble en concurrence avec Lyon". Université Lyon 2. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  30. ^ "JO de 1968 à Grenoble : la transformation d'une ville". France Bleu Isère. 2 February 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  31. ^ "1968/2018 Célébration des 50 ans des Jeux Olympiques d'hiver de Grenoble" (PDF). Ville de Grenoble. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  32. ^ "Trafic de drogue à Grenoble : Accalmie provisoire dans le quartier Saint-Bruno, après les opérations de police - ICI". 13 September 2023.
  33. ^ "Meteo France: Climate in France".
  34. ^ "Les Les entreprises récompensées". Grenoble.cci.fr. Retrieved 2012-07-26.
  35. ^ Jérôme Steffenino, Marguerite Masson. "Ville de Grenoble – Coopérations et villes jumelles". Grenoble.fr. Retrieved 16 May 2013.

قراءات إضافية

منشورة في القرن 19
منشورة في القرن 20
  • "Grenoble", The Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed.), New York: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910, OCLC 14782424 

وصلات خارجية

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