ثورة الدونگان (1895–1896)

لمعلومات عن the revolt of 1862 – 77، انظر ثورة الدونگان (1862–77).
ثورة الدونگان
Dungan revolt
Capture of the Provincial Capital Dali, Yunnan.jpg
الاستيلاء على دالي، عاصمة سلطنة يونان (پينگ‌نان)، 1873.
التاريخ1895-1896
الموقع
Qinghai, Gansu
النتيجة Qing victory
المتحاربون
Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1862-1889).svg Qing Empire, loyalist Khafiya Sufis Muslim rebels, Yihewani and rebel Khafiya Sufis
القادة والزعماء
Yang Changjun
Dong Fuxiang
Brigadier General Tang Yanhe
Yang Zengxin
Ma Anliang[1]
Ma Guoliang
Ma Fulu
Ma Fuxiang
Ma Haiyan
Wei Kuang-tao 魏光燾[2]		 Ma Yonglin †
Ma Dahan †
Ma Wanfu
القوى
Thousands of Loyalist Muslim Hui troops, Han Chinese, and Tibetans[3] Thousands of Rebel Muslim Hui, Dongxiang, Salar, and Baoan troops
الضحايا والخسائر
All rebels killed except Ma Wanfu
جزء من سلسلة عن
الإسلام في الصين
قمة مسجد شي‌آن
التاريخ
حسب الأسرة الحاكمة
التمردات والثورات
الصين بعد الأسر الحاكمة
الشخصيات الرئيسية
الثقافة
  • المدن
  • المناطق
الجماعات
Portal-puzzle.svg بوابة إسلام • Nuvola Chinese flag.svg بوابة الصين

ثورة الدونگان (1895 – 96) كان تمرداً لجماعات عرقية مسلمة عديدة في Qinghai and Gansu against the Qing dynasty, that originated because of a violent dispute between two Sufi orders of the same sect. The Wahhabi inspired Yihewani organization then joined in and encouraged the revolt, which was crushed by loyalist Muslims.

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الثورة

The Dungan revolt (1895–96) broke out in the same place as the Jahriyya revolt of 1781 for the same reasons, sectarian violence between two Naqshbandi Sufi orders.[4] After rival Sufi Naqshbandi spiritual orders had fought and accused each other of various misdeeds, instead of continuing the violence they decided to use the Qing legal system to solve the dispute. They filed opposing lawsuits through the office of the Xining Prefect and the judge in the case decided not to issue a ruling on which group was superior to the other in matters of all Islamic affairs, and urged them to behave. As a result, both groups resorted to violence. A daotai was sent by the Qing to crush the perpetrators of the violence, which ended in several deaths. This led the involved parties in the dispute to rebel against the Qing.[5]

In Xunhua, Qinghai, masses of Hui, Dongxiang, Bao'an, and Salars were incited to revolt against the Qing by the Multicoloured Mosque leader Ma Yonglin. Soldiers were ordered to destroy the rebels by Brigadier General Tang Yanhe.[6] Ma Dahan arranged a deal with the fellow Dongxiang Ma Wanfu when rebelling against the Qing dynasty. In Hezhou, Didao, and Xunhua they directed their adherents to join the rebellion. Tiaoheyan, Sanjiaji, and Guanghe were agreed upon as points in a defensive position and they pledged that they would not capitulate.[7]

Ma Wanfu's Wahhabi inspired Yihewani sect was considered the "new teaching" sect.[8] The Yihewani encouraged the rebellion.

Governor General Yang Changjun sent troops to crush the rebellion.[9]

Dong Fuxiang, the Commander in Chief of Kashgaria (Kashgar), received a telegram ordering that he and General Ma Xinsheng relieve the districts in revolt by conducting forced marches.[10] His loyalist Chinese Muslim troops led by Muslim officers like Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Fulu crushed the revolt, reportedly cutting off the heads and ears of rebels. Dong received the rank of generalissimo.[11][12] Dong Fuxiang's troops from Hezhou were armed with Mausers and Remingtons, which were modern European guns, just brought back from Beijing. Their new weapons severely outclassed the bladed weapons and muzzle loading guns of the Muslim rebels and quashed them in battle.[13][14]

Ma Anliang's Muslim cavalry defeated Muslim rebels at Oxheart Mountain, and relieved the siege of Hezhou on December 4. He led Hui cavalry troops to slaughter rebel Salar Muslim fighters who had agreed to negotiate unarmed at a banquet by telling them "Disown me as a Muslim if I deceive you.", and received the rank of Xinjiang General, and Hezhou Colonel once the revolt was crushed.[15][16] The loyalist Muslim Generals led their troops to initiate massive slaughter of the rebel Muslims. They decapitated the rebels and removed their ears. It was said Muslim blood coloured the red cap of Ma Anliang and Muslim heads were used to construct the offices of Ma Fuxiang and Ma Fulu.[17][18]

In 1895 Ma Anliang lifted the siege of Xining (sining) with four ying (ying is a Chinese unit for battalion).[19][20]

Ma Wanfu surrendered as the Chinese Muslim loyalist General Ma Anliang and Dong Fuxiang arrived to crush the rebel Muslims, and Ma Dahan was killed while fighting.[21]

Ma Yonglin (Ma Yung-lin), his son, and over a hundred other Muslim rebel leaders were captured and beheaded by Dong Fuxiang.[22]

On August 2, 1896, it was reported that the Qing Generals carried out large scale massacres of the rebels, in one Area 8,000 were killed and the females sold into slavery.[23]

Around 400 Muslims in Topa 多巴 did not join the revolt and proclaimed their loyalty to China. An argument between a Han Chinese and his Muslim wife led to these Muslims getting massacred, when she threatened that the Muslims from Topa would attack Tankar and give a signal to their co-religionists to rise up and open the gates by burning the temples atop the hills. The husband reported this to an official and the next day the Muslims were massacred with the exception of a few Muslim girls who were married off to Han Chinese.[24][25][26]

Susie Carson Rijnhart recorded that "Among the most interesting of our patients was an old man, Chinese by birth, but possessing the courage and daring of a Tibetan, who had been appointed a leader over fifty of the local troops, and had set out one morning to aid some Chinese in an adjoining village to repulse an attack by rebels. Treacherously one of his men, a carpenter, had stabbed him in the elbow, some said because the former was in the pay of the Mohammedans, who were anxious to be rid of such an able opponent as Cheo Lao-yeh, the old man, was proving himself to be. They remembered his efficient service in the former rebellion, in which, though wounded seven times, he had dealt them many a crushing defeat. The treacherous thrust had made an ugly wound in his arm, but the family being rich, and consequently able to give him every attention, while I spared no pains to aid in his recovery, each day marked improvement. His wife was a Mongol. His only child was an attractive young married woman of twenty wearing the Mongol costume, which was very becoming to her, while her pretty little baby completed the family group and added much gladness to the lonely hours the old man spent on the k'ang. Many were the presents and incalculable kindnesses bestowed upon us by this man, and when later he died while we were away from home, he asked his daughter to give each of us a rosary he had worn, gifts which we prized very much for we knew they were tokens of sincere gratitude and love."[27][28]

Generals Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang and Ma Haiyan were originally called to Beijing during the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, but the Dungan Revolt (1895) broke out and they were subsequently sent to crush the rebels.[29]

Due to the rebellion the western Inner Mongolian Han Chinese Catholic village Xiaoqiaopan had defensive procedures institted by the Belgian Priests in charge.[30]

Around 100,000 died in the revolt.[31]


المراجع

  •  هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8، بقلم James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1916 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •  هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من The Chinese recorder, Volume 26، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1895 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  1. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 207. ISBN 0295800550. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  2. ^ Ralph L. Powell (8 December 2015). Rise of the Chinese Military Power. Princeton University Press. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-4008-7884-0.
  3. ^ Jonathan Neaman Lipman; Stevan Harrell (5 April 1990). Violence in China: Essays in Culture and Counterculture. SUNY Press. pp. 76–. ISBN 978-0-7914-0115-6.
  4. ^ Lipman, Jonathan N. “Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu.” Modern China, vol. 10, no. 3, 1984, p. 298. JSTOR, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=14#page_scan_tab_contents.
  5. ^ Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". 10. Sage Publications, Inc.: 299. JSTOR 189017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 136. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  7. ^ Michael Dillon (16 December 2013). China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects. Routledge. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-136-80933-0.
  8. ^ Papers from the Conference on Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance, Banff, August 20–24, 1987, Volume 3. 1987. p. 29. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  9. ^ Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 142. ISBN 0-295-97644-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  10. ^ The Chinese recorder, Volume 26. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. 1895. p. 452. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  11. ^ James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  12. ^ M. Th. Houtsma; A. J. Wensinck (1993). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913-1936. Stanford BRILL. p. 850. ISBN 90-04-09796-1. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  13. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 157. ISBN 0295800550. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  14. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1980). The border world of Gansu, 1895-1935. Stanford University. p. 81. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  15. ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects. Psychology Press. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3.
  16. ^ Papers from the Conference on Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance, Banff, August 20–24, 1987, Volume 3 Papers from the Conference on Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance, Banff, August 20–24, 1987, Joint Committee on Chinese Studies (U.S.). Ann Arbor. 1987. p. 29.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 168. ISBN 0-295-97644-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  18. ^ Ma Tong, Zhongguo Yisilan... shilue, p 245
  19. ^ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Center for Asian Studies (1979). Chinese Republican studies newsletter, Volumes 5-7. p. 35. Retrieved 2011-06-06. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |editors= (help)[1]
  20. ^ Chinese Republican Studies Newsletter, Volumes 1-7. Contributors University of Connecticut. Dept. of History, Denison University. Dept. of History, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Center for Asian Studies. Center for Asian Studies, University of Illinois. 1975. p. 171. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
  21. ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  22. ^ TRANSLATION OF THE PEKING GAZETTE for 1896 (PDF). Shanghai: REPRINTED FROM THE "NORTH-CHINA HERALD AND SUPREME COURT AND CONSULAR GAZETTE". 1897. p. 6. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  23. ^ "SLAUGHTER OF MOHAMMEDANS.; The Chinese Commander Showing No Mercy to Insurrectionists" (PDF). THE NEW YORK TIMES. 14 August 1896. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
  24. ^ Rijnhart, M.D. (1868-1908), Susie Carson (1901). "CHAPTER VIII OUR REMOVAL TO TANKAR". With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple (Third ed.). Chicago, New York & Toronto: Fleming H. Revell Company. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Susie Carson Rijnhart (1999). With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Borders and of a Journey Into the Far Interior. Asian Educational Services. p. 135. ISBN 978-81-206-1302-7.
  26. ^ Mrs. Susie Carson Rijnhart (1901). With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Border, and of a Journey Into the Far Interior. Oliphant, Anderson, & Ferrier. p. 135.
  27. ^ Susie Carson Rijnhart (1999). With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Borders and of a Journey Into the Far Interior. Asian Educational Services. p. 71. ISBN 978-81-206-1302-7.
  28. ^ Mrs. Susie Carson Rijnhart (1901). With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Border, and of a Journey Into the Far Interior. Oliphant, Anderson, & Ferrier. p. 72.
  29. ^ 董福祥与西北马家军阀的的故事 - 360Doc个人图书馆
  30. ^ Bickers, Robert A.; Tiedemann, R. G., eds. (2007). The Boxers, China, and the World (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 30. ISBN 0742553957. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  31. ^ CARSON, SUSANNA (Rijnhart; Moyes)

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