عهد مـِيْ‌جي

عهد مـِيْ‌جي
明治時代
23 أكتوبر 1868 – 30 يوليو 1912
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العاهلمـِيْ‌جي
الأحداث الرئيسيةاستعراش مـِيْ‌جي
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عهد مـِيْ‌جي (明治時代, Meiji jidai, ja)، هو عهد في التاريخ الياباني يمتد من 23 أكتوبر 1868 إلى 30 يوليو 1912.[1] كان عهد مـِيْ‌جي هو النصف الأول من امبراطورية اليابان، عندما انتقل الشعب الياباني من كونه مجتمعاً إقطاعياً معزولاً معرضاً لخطر الاستعمار من قبل القوى الغربية إلى النموذج الجديد للدولة القومية الحديثة والصناعية والقوة العظمى الناشئة، المتأثرة بالأفكار الغربية العلمية والتكنولوجية والفلسفية والسياسية والقانونية والجمالية. ونتيجة لهذا التبني الشامل لأفكار مختلفة جذرياً، كانت التغييرات التي طرأت على اليابان عميقة، وأثرت على بنيتها الاجتماعية وسياساتها الداخلية واقتصادها وجيشها وعلاقاتها الخارجية. كانت هذه الفترة تتوافق مع حكم الامبراطور مـِيْ‌جي، وسبقها عهد كى‌يو، وخلفها عهد تاي‌شو، عند تولي الامبراطور تاي‌شو الحكم.

لم يكن التحديث السريع خلال عهد مـِيْ‌جي خالياً من المعارضين، حيث تسببت التغيرات السريعة في المجتمع في تمرد العديد من التقليديين الساخطين من طبقة الساموراي السابقة ضد حكومة مـِيْ‌جي خلال عقد 1870، وأشهرهم ساي‌گو تاكاموري، الذي قاد تمرد ساتسوما. ومع ذلك، كان هناك أيضًا ساموراي سابقون ظلوا مخلصين أثناء خدمتهم في حكومة مـِيْ‌جي، مثل إيتو هيروبومي وإيتاگاكي تاي‌سوكى.

استعراش مـِيْ‌جي

في 3 فبراير 1867، تولى الأمير موتسوهيتو البالغ من العمر 14 عامًا عرش الأقحوان خلفاً لوالده الامبراطور كومـِيْ‌، ليصبح الإمبراطور رقم 122.

تزامن هذا مع الضغوط التي مورست على الشوگونية الحاكمة لتحديث اليابان، والجمع بين التقدم الحديث والقيم التقليدية. وكان موتسوهيتو متعاطفاً مع هذه الأفكار، مما أدى إلى الدعوة إلى استعادة السلطة الحاكمة للامبراطور.

في 9 نوفمبر 1867، قدم الشوگون تكوگاوا يوشي‌نوبو استقالته إلى الإمبراطور، و"وضع صلاحياته تحت تصرف الإمبراطور"، ثم تنحى رسمياً بعد عشرة أيام.[2] في العام التالي، حدثت أُستعيدت الإمبراطورية في 3 يناير 1868، بتشكيل حكومة جديدة. كان سقوط إدو في صيف عام 1868 بمثابة نهاية شـُگونية تـُكوگاوا، وُاعلن عصر عهد، وهو عهد مـِيْ‌جي.

كان الإصلاح الأول هو إصدار قسم الميثاق الخماسي عام 1868، وهو بيان عام لأهداف زعماء مـِيْ‌جي لتعزيز الروح المعنوية وكسب الدعم المالي الحكومة الجديدة. تتألف أحكامه الخمسة من:

  1. تأسيس جمعية تشاورية على نطاق واسع واتخاذ جميع الأمور عن طريق المناقشة العامة.
  2. تتحد جميع الطبقات، العليا والدنيا، في تنفيذ إدارة شؤون الدولة بقوة.
  3. سيُسمح لعامة الشعب، لا أقل من المدنيين والعسكريين من المسؤولين، لكل واحد منهم بملاحقة دعوته الخاصة حتى لا يكون هناك استياء.
  4. ستُكسر العادات الشريرة التي كانت موجودة في الماضي وكل شيء مبني على قوانين الطبيعة العادلة.
  5. سيتم البحث عن المعرفة في جميع أنحاء العالم من أجل تعزيز أسس الحكم الإمبراطوري.

كان القسم الميثاقي ضمنيًا بمثابة نهاية للحكم السياسي الحصري من قبل باكوفو (إدارة مباشرة لشوگون بما في ذلك الضباط)، والتحرك نحو مشاركة أكثر ديمقراطية في الحكومة. لتنفيذ قسم الميثاق، تم وضع دستور قصير العمر إلى حد ما يتكون من أحد عشر مادة في يونيو 1868. بالإضافة إلى توفير مجلس دولة جديد، وهيئات تشريعية، وأنظمة رتب للنبلاء والمسؤولين، فقد حدد مدة تولي المنصب بأربع سنوات، وسمح بالاقتراع العام، ونص على نظام ضريبي جديد، وأمر بقواعد إدارية محلية جديدة.

الامبراطور مـِيْ‌جي في الرابعة عشر من عمره، ينتقل من كيوتو إلى طوكيو في نهاية عام 1868، بعد سقوط إدو.

أكدت حكومة مـِيْ‌جي للقوى الأجنبية أنها ستتبع المعاهدات القديمة التي تفاوض عليها الباكوفو وأعلنت أنها ستتصرف وفقاً للقانون الدولي. اختار موتسوهيتو، الذي حكم حتى عام 1912، لقباً جديداً للحكم - مـِيْ‌جي، أو الحكم المستنير - للإشارة إلى بداية عصر جديد في التاريخ الياباني. لإضفاء المزيد من الطابع الدرامي على النظام الجديد، نُقلت العاصمة من كيوتو، حيث كانت تقع منذ عام 794، إلى طوكيو (العاصمة الشرقية)، الاسم الجديد لإدو. في خطوة حاسمة لتوطيد النظام الجديد، سلم معظم الداي‌ميو أراضيهم وسجلات التعداد السكاني طواعية للامبراطور في إلغاء نظام الهان، رمزاً إلى أن الأرض والشعب كانا تحت سلطة الإمبراطور.

وبعد تأكيدهم على مناصبهم الوراثية، أصبح الداي‌ميو حكاماً، وتحملت الحكومة المركزية نفقاتهم الإدارية ودفعت رواتب الساموراي لهم. وفي عام 1871، حلت المحافظات محل الهان، واستمرت السلطة في التدفق إلى الحكومة الوطنية. وتولى مسؤولون من الهان السابقين المفضلين، مثل ساتسوما تشوشو توسا هي‌زن، مناصب الوزارات الجديدة. وفي السابق، حل نبلاء البلاط القدامى والساموراي من الرتب الأدنى محل المعينين من الباكوفو والداي‌ميو مع ظهور طبقة حاكمة جديدة

وبما أن استعراش مـِيْ‌جي سعى إلى إعادة الإمبراطور إلى مكانة بارزة، فقد بُذلت جهود لإنشاء دولة ذات توجه شنتوي تماماً كما كانت قبل 1000 سنة. ونظراً لأن الشنتو والبوذية قد تشكلتا في عقيدة توفيقية في الألف سنة السابقة وكانت البوذية مرتبطة ارتباطاً وثيقاً بالشوگونية، فقد تضمن هذا الفصل بين الشنتو والبوذية (شينتوبوتسو بون‌ري) والتدمير المرتبط بالعديد من المعابد البوذية والعنف المرتبط بها (هاي‌بوتسو هي‌شاكو). وعلاوة على ذلك، كان لا بد من إنشاء دولة شنتوية جديدة لهذا الغرض. عام 1871، تأسس مكتب عبادة الشنتو (ja:神祇省)، والذي احتل مرتبة أعلى حتى من مجلس الدولة من حيث الأهمية. وقد تم تبني أفكار الكوكوتاي لمدرسة ميتو، والتأكيد على الأصل الإلهي للأسرة الإمبراطوري، ودعمت الحكومة معلمي الشنتو، وهي خطوة صغيرة لكنها هامة. وعلى الرغم من تخفيض رتبة مكتب عبادة الشنتو عام 1872، إلا أنه بحلول عام 1877 سيطرت وزارة الداخلية على جميع الأضرحة الشنتوية وحصلت بعض الطوائف الشنتوية على اعتراف الدولة. وتم تحرير الشنتو من الإدارة البوذية واستعادة ممتلكاتها. وعلى الرغم من أن البوذية عانت من رعاية الدولة للشنتو، إلا أنها شهدت نهضة خاصة بها. كما تم تشريع المسيحية، وظلت الكونفوشيوسية عقيدة أخلاقية مهمة. ومع ذلك، أصبح المفكرون اليابانيون على نحو متزايد يتماهون مع الأيديولوجية والأساليب الغربية.


السياسة

كان إيتاگاكي تاي‌سوكي (1837-1919) أحد أبرز المؤيدين للحكومة التمثيلية، وهو زعيم قوي في توسا استقال من مجلس الدولة بسبب القضية الكورية عام 1873. سعى إيتاگاكي إلى وسائل سلمية، وليس تمردية، للحصول على صوت في الحكومة. بدأ مدرسة وحركة تهدف إلى تأسيس ملكية دستورية وجمعية تشريعية. أطلق على هذا التنظيم حركة الحرية وحقوق الشعب. كتب إيتاگاكي وآخرون توسا ميموريال (ja) عام 1874، منتقدين القوة الجامحة للأوليگاركية ومطالبين بالتأسيس الفوري للحكومة التمثيلية.

بين عامي 1871 و1873، سُنت سلسلة من قوانين الأراضي والضرائب باعتبارها الأساس للسياسة المالية الحديثة. وشُرعت الملكية الخاصة، وإصدار الصكوك، وتقييم الأراضي بالقيمة العادلة للسوق مع دفع الضرائب نقداً وليس عينياً كما كان الحال في أيام ما قبل مـِيْ‌جي وبمعدلات أقل قليلاً.

بعد أن شعر بعدم الرضا عن وتيرة الإصلاح بعد عودته إلى مجلس الدولة في عام 1875، نظم إيتاگاكي أتباعه وغيرهم من أنصار الديمقراطية في آي‌كوكوشا (جمعية الوطنيين) على مستوى البلاد للضغط من أجل حكومة تمثيلية عام 1878. وفي 1881، وفي عمل اشتهر به، ساعد إيتاگاكي في تأسيس جي‌يوتو (الحزب الليبرالي)، الذي فضل العقائد السياسية الفرنسية.

عام 1882، أسس اُكوما شيگى‌نوبو حزب ري‌كن كاي‌شنتو (الحزب التقدمي الدستوري)، الذي دعا إلى ديمقراطية دستورية على الطراز البريطاني. ورداً على ذلك، أسس البيروقراطيون الحكوميون ومسؤولو الحكومة المحلية وغيرهم من المحافظين حزب ري‌كين تيْ‌سيْ‌تو (الحزب الحاكم الإمبراطوري)، وهو حزب مؤيد للحكومة، عام 1882. تلا ذلك العديد من المظاهرات السياسية، بعضها عنيف، مما أدى إلى المزيد من القيود الحكومية. أعاقت القيود الأحزاب السياسية وأدت إلى الانقسامات داخلها وفيما بينها. تم حل حزب جي‌تو، الذي عارض حزب جاي‌شنتو، عام 1884 واستقال أوكوما من منصب رئيس حزب كاي‌شنتو.

كان زعماء الحكومة، الذين كانوا مشغولين لفترة طويلة بالتهديدات العنيفة للاستقرار والانقسام الخطير بين القيادات بشأن القضية الكورية، متفقين عموماً على ضرورة إنشاء حكومة دستورية ذات يوم. وكان كي‌دو تاكايوشي زعيم التشوشو يفضل شكلاً دستورياً للحكومة منذ ما قبل عام 1874، وصيغت العديد من المقترحات الخاصة بالضمانات الدستورية. ومع الاعتراف بحقائق الضغوط السياسية، كانت الأوليگركية عازمة على الاحتفاظ بالسيطرة. وبالتالي، تم اتخاذ خطوات متواضعة.

أسفر مؤتمر أوساكا عام 1875 عن إعادة تنظيم الحكومة بسلطة قضائية مستقلة ومجلس شيوخ معين (گن‌روين) مكلف بمراجعة المقترحات الخاصة بإنشاء هيئة تشريعية. وأعلن الإمبراطور أن "الحكومة الدستورية سوف تُنشأ على مراحل تدريجية" حيث أمر مجلس شيوخ بصياغة دستور.

وبعد مرور ثلاث سنوات، أسفر مؤتمر حكام المحافظات عن تأسيس جمعيات منتخبة للمحافظات. ورغم محدودية سلطاتها، فقد مثلت هذه الجمعيات خطوة في اتجاه الحكومة التمثيلية على المستوى الوطني، وبحلول عام 1880 تشكلت جمعيات في القرى والبلدات أيضاً. وفي عام 1880، عقد مندوبون من أربع وعشرين محافظة مؤتمراً وطنياً لتأسيس كوكاي كي‌سيْ دوميْ.

على الرغم من أن الحكومة لم تكن تعارض الحكم البرلماني، إلا أنها واجهت حملة "حقوق الشعب"، واستمرت في محاولة السيطرة على الوضع السياسي. وفي عام 1875، حظرت القوانين الجديدة انتقاد الحكومة من قبل الصحافة أو مناقشة القوانين الوطنية. وقد حد قانون التجمعات العامة بشدة من التجمعات العامة من خلال منع حضور الموظفين المدنيين واشتراط الحصول على إذن من الشرطة لجميع الاجتماعات.

لكن داخل الدائرة الحاكمة، وعلى الرغم من النهج المحافظ الذي انتهجته الزعامة، واصل أوكوما الدفاع عن النموذج البريطاني للحكومة، وهي حكومة تتألف من أحزاب سياسية ومجلس وزراء ينظمه حزب الأغلبية، ويخضع لمحاسبة الجمعية الوطنية. ودعا إلى عقد انتخابات بحلول عام 1882 وتشكيل جمعية وطنية بحلول عام 1883؛ وفي هذا السياق تسبب في اندلاع أزمة سياسية انتهت بصدور مرسوم إمبراطوري عام 1881 يعلن تأسيس جمعية وطنية عام 1890 وإقالة أوكوما.

رفض إيواكورا وغيره من المحافظين النموذج البريطاني، واستعاروا بشكل كبير من النظام الدستوري الپروسي. تم تكليف أحد أوليگاركية مـِيْ‌جي، إيتو هيروبومي (1841-1909)، وهو من مواليد تشوشو وكان مشاركاً لفترة طويلة في شؤون الحكومة، بصياغة دستور اليابان. قاد مهمة دراسة دستورية في الخارج عام 1882، وقضى معظم وقته في ألمانيا. رفض دستور الولايات المتحدة لأنه "ليبرالي للغاية"، والنظام البريطاني لأنه غير عملي للغاية، ولديه برلمان يتمتع بقدر كبير من السيطرة على النظام الملكي؛ رُفضت النماذج الفرنسية والإسپانية لأنها تميل إلى الاستبداد.

تم تكليف إيتو بإدارة مكتب التحقيق في الأنظمة الدستورية الجديد عام 1884، وأُستبدل مجلس الدولة عام 1885 بحكومة يرأسها إيتو كرئيس للوزراء. أُلغيت مناصب المستشار (أو رئيس الوزراء)، ووزير اليسار، ووزير اليمين، والتي كانت موجودة منذ القرن السابع كمناصب استشارية للامبراطور. وفي مكانها، تأسس مجلس الخاصة عام 1888 لتقييم الدستور القادم وتقديم المشورة للامبراطور.

لتعزيز سلطة الدولة، تأسس مجلس الحرب الأعلى تحت قيادة ياماگاتا أري‌تومو (1838-1922)، وهو مواطن من تشوشو يُنسب إليه الفضل في تأسيس الجيش الياباني الحديث وكان ليصبح أول رئيس وزراء دستوري. طور مجلس الحرب الأعلى نظاماً للأركان العامة على الطراز الألماني مع رئيس أركان يتمتع بإمكانية الوصول المباشر إلى الامبراطور والذي يمكنه العمل بشكل مستقل عن وزير الجيش والمسؤولين المدنيين.

مراسم إعلان الدستور، بريشة ,ادا إيساكو، حيث يظهر الامبراطور وهو يقدم الدستور لرئيس الوزراء كورودا كيواتاكا في مراسم عُقدت في القصر الامبراطوري، في 11 فبراير 1889 (معرض صور مـِيْ‌جي التذكارية).[3]

The Constitution of the Empire of Japan was enacted on November 29, 1890.[4] It was a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy.[5] The Emperor of Japan was legally the supreme leader, and the Cabinet were his followers. The Prime Minister would be elected by a Privy Council. In reality, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government.

Class distinctions were mostly eliminated during modernization to create a representative democracy. The samurai lost their status as the only class with military privileges. However, during the Meiji period, most leaders in Japanese society (politics, business and military) were ex-samurai or descendants of samurai.

The 1889 Meiji Constitution made relatively small concessions to civil rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of the political process. The Emperor shared his authority and gave rights and liberties to his subjects. It provided for the Imperial Diet (Teikoku Gikai), composed of a popularly elected House of Representatives with a very limited franchise of male citizens who were over twenty-five years of age and paid fifteen yen in national taxes (approximately 1% of the population). The House of Peers was composed of nobility and imperial appointees. A cabinet was responsible to the Emperor and independent of the legislature. The Diet could approve government legislation and initiate laws, make representations to the government, and submit petitions to the Emperor. The Meiji Constitution lasted as the fundamental law until 1947.

In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extra-constitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively, the genrō made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genrō, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically.

Throughout the period, however, political problems usually were solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever-larger role in the political process as a result. Between 1891 and 1895, Ito served as Prime Minister with a cabinet composed mostly of genrō who wanted to establish a government party to control the House of Representatives. Although not fully realized, the trend toward party politics was well established.

المجتمع

Ginza in the 1880s

On its return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred people from the old court nobility, former daimyo, and samurai who had provided valuable service to the Emperor were organized into a new peerage, the Kazoku, consisting of five ranks: prince, marquis, count, viscount, and baron.

In the transition between the Edo period and the Meiji era, the Ee ja nai ka movement, a spontaneous outbreak of ecstatic behavior, took place.

In 1885, noted public intellectual Yukichi Fukuzawa wrote the influential essay "Leaving Asia", arguing that Japan should orient itself at the "civilized countries of the West", leaving behind the "hopelessly backward" Asian neighbors, namely Korea and China. This essay certainly encouraged the economic and technological rise of Japan in the Meiji era, but it also may have laid the intellectual foundations for later Japanese colonialism in the region.

Display of a painting of a nude, Kuroda Seiki's Morning Toilette, at the Fourth National Industrial Exhibition in 1895 caused a stir, captured by Bigot[6]

The Meiji era saw a flowering of public discourse on the direction of Japan. Works like Nakae Chōmin's A Discourse by Three Drunkards on Government[7] debated how best to blend the new influences coming from the West with local Japanese culture. Grassroots movements like the Freedom and People's Rights Movement called for the establishment of a formal legislature, civil rights, and greater pluralism in the Japanese political system. Journalists, politicians, and writers actively participated in the movement, which attracted an array of interest groups, including women's rights activists.[8]

The elite class of the Meiji era adapted many aspects of Victorian taste, as seen in the construction of Western-style pavilions and reception rooms called yōkan or yōma in their homes. These parts of Meiji homes were displayed in popular magazines of the time, such as Ladies' Graphic, which portrayed the often empty rooms of the homes of the aristocracy of all levels, including the imperial palaces. Integrating Western cultural forms with an assumed, untouched native Japanese spirit was characteristic of Meiji society, especially at the top levels, and represented Japan's search for a place within a new world power system in which European colonial empires dominated.[9]

الموضى

The production of kimono started to use Western technologies such as synthetic dye, and decoration was sometimes influenced by Western motifs.[10] The textile industry modernized rapidly and silk from Tokyo's factories became Japan's principal export.[11] Cheap synthetic dyes meant that bold purples and reds, previously restricted to the wealthy elite, could be owned by anyone.[12] Faster and cheaper manufacture allowed more people to afford silk kimono, and enabled designers to create new patterns.[12] The Emperor issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress.[13] Fukuzawa Yukichi's descriptions of Western clothing and customs were influential.[14] Western dress became popular in the public sphere: many men adopted Western dress in the workplace, although kimono were still the norm for men at home and for women.[15] In the 1890s the kimono reasserted itself, with people wearing bolder and brighter styles. A new type called the hōmongi bridged the gap between formal dress and everyday dress.[11]

The technology of the time allowed for subtle color gradients rather than abrupt changes of color. Another trend was for outer and inner garments of the same design.[16] Another trend in the Meiji era was for women's under-kimono made by combining pieces of different fabric, sometimes of radically different colors and designs.[17] For men, the trend was for highly decorative under-kimono that would be covered by outer kimono that were plain or very simply designed. Even the clothing of infants and young children used bold colors, intricate designs, and materials common to adult fashions.[18] Japanese exports led to kimono becoming an object of fascination in the West.[19]

الاقتصاد

The Industrial Revolution in Japan occurred during the Meiji era. The industrial revolution began around 1870 as Meiji era leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin).

In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up.

Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.[20] Due to the importing of new textile manufacturing technology from Europe, between 1886 and 1897, Japan's total value of yarn output rose from 12 million to 176 million yen. In 1886, 62% of yarn in Japan was imported; by 1902, most yarn was produced locally. By 1913, Japan was producing 672 million pounds of yarn per year, becoming the world's fourth-largest exporter of cotton yarn.[21]

The first railway was opened between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. The rail system was rapidly developed throughout Japan well into the twentieth century. The introduction of railway transportation led to more efficient production due to the decrease in transport costs, allowing manufacturing firms to move into more populated interior regions of Japan in search for labor input. The railway also enabled newfound access to raw materials that had previously been too difficult or too costly to transport.[22]

There were at least two reasons for the speed of Japan's modernization: the employment of more than 3,000 foreign experts (called o-yatoi gaikokujin or 'hired foreigners') in a variety of specialist fields such as teaching foreign languages, science, engineering, the army and navy, among others; and the dispatch of many Japanese students overseas to Europe and America, based on the fifth and last article of the Charter Oath of 1868: 'Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundations of Imperial rule.' The process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi.

1907 Tokyo Industrial Exhibition

Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government led Japan through the process of industrialization, borrowing technology and economic policy from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic, importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan's relative poverty in raw materials.

Tsuruma Park, 1910; in January 1873 the Dajō-kan issued a notice providing for the establishment of public parks, that of Ueno Park following shortly after.[23]

Other economic reforms passed by the government included the creation of a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conductive to an advanced capitalist economy took time, but was completed by the 1890s, by which time the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. The Land Tax Reform of 1873 was another significant fiscal reform by the Meiji government, establishing the right of private land ownership for the first time in Japan's history.

Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. Those who had been informally involved in foreign trade before the Meiji Restoration also flourished. Old bakufu-serving firms that clung to their traditional ways failed in the new business environment.

The industrial economy continued to expand rapidly, until about 1920, due to inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments. By World War I, Japan had become a major industrial nation.


العسكرية

Japanese soldiers in front of Kankaimon gate at Shuri Castle at the time of the so-called Ryūkyū Disposition

نظرة عامة

Undeterred by opposition, the Meiji leaders continued to modernize the nation through government-sponsored telegraph cable links to all major Japanese cities and the Asian mainland and construction of railroads, shipyards, munitions factories, mines, textile manufacturing facilities, factories, and experimental agriculture stations. Greatly concerned about national security, the leaders made significant efforts at military modernization, which included establishing a small standing army, a large reserve system, and compulsory militia service for all men. Foreign military systems were studied, foreign advisers, especially French ones, were brought in, and Japanese cadets sent abroad to Europe and the United States to attend military and naval schools.

أوائل عهد مـِيْ‌جي (1868–77)

In 1854, after US Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry forced the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa, Japanese elites took the position that they needed to modernize the state's military capacities, or risk further coercion from Western powers.[24]

1877 painting of the Battle of Shiroyama
The defeat at the Battle of Shiroyama in 1877 effectively ended the samurai class.

In 1868, the Japanese government established the Tokyo Arsenal. The same year, Ōmura Masujirō established Japan's first military academy in Kyoto. Ōmura further proposed military billets be filled by all classes of people including farmers and merchants. The shōgun class,[مطلوب توضيح] not happy with Ōmura's views on conscription, assassinated him the following year.[25]

In 1870, Japan expanded its military production base by opening another arsenal in Osaka. The Osaka Arsenal was responsible for the production of machine guns and ammunition.[26] Also, four gunpowder facilities were opened at this site. Japan's production capacity gradually expanded.

In 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and Saigō Jūdō, both new field marshals, founded the Corps of the Imperial Guards. Also, in the same year, the hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years, when in January the Conscription Law of 1873 was passed. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. Avoidance methods included maiming, self-mutilation, and local uprisings.[27]

In conjunction with the new conscription law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military. Indeed, the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French.[28] The enlisted corps ranks were: private, noncommissioned officers, and officers. The private classes were: jōtō-hei or upper soldier, ittō-sotsu or first-class soldier, and nitō-sotsu or second-class soldier. The noncommissioned officer class ranks were: gochō or corporal, gunsō or sergeant, sōchō or sergeant major, and tokumu-sōchō or special sergeant major.

Commander-in-chief Saigō Tsugumichi pictured with leaders of Seqalu (Native tribe) in Taiwan Expedition 1874
Photograph of Atayal men taken by Torii Ryūzō in 1900

Despite the Conscription Law of 1873, and all the reforms and progress, the new Japanese army was still untested. That all changed in 1877, when Saigō Takamori led the last rebellion of the samurai in Kyūshū. In February 1877, Saigō left Kagoshima with a small contingent of soldiers on a journey to Tokyo. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō's army as they attempted to force their way into the castle. Rather than leave an enemy behind him, Saigō laid siege to the castle. Two days later, Saigō's rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō's rebels in a frontal assault at what now is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day-battle, Saigō's nearly ten thousand strong army battled hand-to-hand the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly four thousand casualties during this engagement. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō's was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end the siege on Kumamoto Castle after fifty-four days. Saigō's troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. Enodake. Saigō's army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following the final engagement with Imperial forces which resulted in the deaths of the remaining forty samurai including Saigō, who, having suffered a fatal bullet wound in the abdomen, was honorably beheaded by his retainer. The national army's victory validated the current course of the modernization of the Japanese army as well as ended the era of the samurai.

العلاقات الخارجية

When the United States Navy ended Japan's Sakoku policy, and thus its isolation, the latter found itself defenseless against military pressures and economic exploitation by the Western powers. For Japan to emerge from the feudal period, it had to avoid the colonial fate of other Asian countries by establishing genuine national independence and equality. Following the María Luz Incident, Japan released the Chinese coolies from a western ship in 1872, after which the Qing imperial government of China gave thanks to Japan.

Following Japan's victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), Japan broke through as an international power with a victory against Russia in Manchuria (north-eastern China) in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Allied with Britain since the Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed in London on January 30, 1902, Japan joined the Allies in World War I, seizing German-held territory in China and the Pacific in the process, but otherwise remained largely out of the conflict.

Following World War I, a weakened Europe left a greater share in international markets to the United States and Japan, which emerged greatly strengthened. Japanese competition made great inroads into hitherto-European-dominated markets in Asia, not only in China, but even in European colonies such as India and Indonesia, reflecting the development of the Meiji era.

The final years of the Meiji era were also marked by the annexation of Korea in 1910 its colonial rule would persist until Japan's defeat and surrender in World War II in 1945 during the middle of the Shōwa period and would have lasting negative repercussions on foreign relations between Japan and both North and South Korea.

الفنون

Mythical group in bronze by Otake Koriyuni, the Khalili Collection of Japanese Art

The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japanese arts at a succession of world's fairs, beginning with the 1873 Vienna World's Fair.[29][30] As well as heavily funding the fairs, the government took an active role organizing how Japan's culture was presented to the world. It created a semi-public company — the Kiritsu Kosho Kaisha (First Industrial Manufacturing Company) — to promote and commercialize exports of art[31] and established the Hakurankai Jimukyoku (Exhibition Bureau) to maintain quality standards.[30] For the 1876 Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia, the Japanese government created a Centennial Office and sent a special envoy to secure space for the 30,000 items that would be displayed.[32] The Imperial Household also took an active interest in arts and crafts, commissioning works ("presentation wares") as gifts for foreign dignitaries.[33] In 1890, the Teishitsu Gigeiin (Artist to the Imperial Household) system was created to recognize distinguished artists; seventy were appointed from 1890 to 1944.[34] Among these were the painter and lacquer artist Shibata Zeshin, ceramicist Makuzu Kōzan, painter Hashimoto Gahō, and cloisonné enamel artist Namikawa Yasuyuki.[34]

As Western imports became popular, demand for Japanese art declined within Japan itself.[35] In Europe and America, the new availability of Japanese art led to a fascination for Japanese culture; a craze known in Europe as Japonisme.[36] Imperial patronage, government sponsorship, promotion to new audiences, and Western technology combined to foster an era of Japanese artistic innovation. In the decorative arts, Japanese artists reached new levels of technical sophistication.[31]

Today, Masayuki Murata owns more than 10,000 Meiji art works and is one of the most enthusiastic collectors. From that time, most of the excellent works of Meiji Art were bought by foreign collectors and only a few of them remained in Japan, but because he bought back many works from foreign countries and opened the Kiyomizu Sannenzaka Museum,[37] the study and reevaluation of Meiji Art rapidly advanced in Japan from the 21st century.[38] Nasser Khalili is also one of the world's most dedicated collectors of Meiji art, and his collection encompasses many categories of Meiji art. The Japanese Imperial Family also owns excellent works of Meiji Art, some of which were donated to the state and are now stored in the Museum of the Imperial Collections.


المينا

Flower and bird pattern vase, by Namikawa Yasuyuki

During the Meiji era, Japanese cloisonné enamel reached a technical peak, producing items more advanced than any that had existed before.[39] The period from 1890 to 1910 was known as the "Golden age" of Japanese enamels.[40] Artists experimented with pastes and with the firing process to produce ever larger blocks of enamel, with less need for cloisons (enclosing metal strips).[39] During this period, enamels with a design unique to Japan, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. Designs also increasingly used areas of blank space.[41] The two most famous enamelers of this era were Namikawa Yasuyuki and Namikawa Sōsuke, whose family names sound the same but who were not related.[41] Namikawa Sōsuke promoted his work as technically innovative and adopted a style resembling fine paintings. Namikawa Yasuyuki was more conservative, opting for geometrical patterns but gradually becoming more pictorial during his career.[42] Along with the two Namikawa, the Ando Cloisonné Company has produced many high-quality cloisonné works.

اللكيه

"Waves" maki-e panel by Shibata Zeshin, 1888–1890

Gold- or silver-decorated lacquerwares had been popular in the Edo period but fell out of favor in the early nineteenth-century due to economic hardship.[43] The Meiji era saw a renewed interest in lacquer as artists developed new designs and experimented with new textures and finishes. Foremost among these was Shibata Zeshin,[43] who has been called "Japan's greatest lacquerer".[44] The appeal of his highly original style was in the choice of motifs and subject matter rather than embedded gold and silver. He placed lacquer panels in frames, imitating Western oil paintings.[45] Other notable lacquer artists of the 19th century include Nakayama Komin and Shirayama Shosai, both of whom, in contrast with Zeshin, maintained a classical style that owed a lot to Japanese and Chinese landscape art.[46] Maki-e, decorating the lacquer in gold or silver dust, was the most common technique for quality lacquerware in this period.[47] Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognized as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.[45]

تشغيل المعادن

One of the Twelve Hawks by Suzuki Chokichi, 1893, bronze, lacquer, casting, gilding, and inlay

At the start of the Meiji era, Japanese metalwork was almost totally unknown outside the country, unlike lacquer and porcelain which had previously been exported.[48] Metalwork was connected to Buddhist practice, for example in the use of bronze for temple bells and incense cauldrons, so there were fewer opportunities for metalworkers once Buddhism was displaced as the state religion.[48] International exhibitions brought Japanese cast bronze to a new foreign audience, attracting strong praise.[48] Suzuki Chokichi, a leading producer of cast bronze for international exhibition, became director of the Kiritsu Kosho Kaisha from 1874 to the company's dissolution in 1891. In 1896 he was appointed Artist to the Imperial Household.[48] The works of Chokichi and his contemporaries took inspiration from late Edo period carvings and prints, combining and sometimes exaggerating traditional design elements in new ways to appeal to the export market.[49] The past history of samurai weaponry equipped Japanese metalworkers to create metallic finishes in a wide range of colors. By combining and finishing copper, silver and gold in different proportions, they created specialized alloys including shakudō and shibuichi. With this variety of alloys and finishes, an artist could give the impression of full-color decoration.[50] Some of these metalworkers were appointed Artists to the Imperial Household, including Kano Natsuo, Unno Shomin, Namekawa Sadakatsu, and Jomi Eisuke II.[51]

الپورسلين

Earthenware bowl by Yabu Meizan, 1910ح. 1910

Japan's porcelain industry was well-established at the start of the Meiji era, but the mass-produced wares were not known for their elegance.[52] During this era, technical and artistic innovations turned porcelain into one of the most internationally successful Japanese decorative art forms.[52] The career of porcelain artist Makuzu Kōzan is an archetype for the trajectory of Meiji art.[52] He was passionate about preserving traditional influences but adopted new technologies from the West.[52] He was an entrepreneur as well as an artist, organizing a workshop with many artisans[53] and actively promoting his work at international exhibitions, travelling extensively in Europe.[54] As his career went on, he adopted more Western influences on his decoration,[55] while his works shaped Western perceptions of Japanese design.[42] Underglaze blue painting on porcelain was well-established in Japan, and the Kozan workshop transformed this practice, combining multiple underglaze colors on a single item and introducing more subtle graduations of color.[56]

Satsuma ware was a name originally given to pottery from Satsuma province, elaborately decorated with gilt and enamel. These wares were highly praised in the West. Seen in the West as distinctively Japanese, this style actually owed a lot to imported pigments and Western influences and had been created with export in mind.[57] Workshops in many cities raced to produce this style to satisfy demand from Europe and America, often producing quickly and cheaply. So, the term "Satsuma ware" came to be associated not with a place of origin but with lower-quality ware created purely for export.[58] Despite this, artists such as Yabu Meizan and Makuzu Kōzan maintained the highest artistic standards while also successfully exporting.[59] From 1876 to 1913, Kōzan won prizes at 51 exhibitions, including the World's fair and the National Industrial Exhibition.[60]

نحت العاج

Basket of Flowers, 1900ح. 1900. Khalili Collection of Japanese Art.

In the Meiji period, Japanese clothes began to be westernized and the number of people who wore kimono decreased, so the craftsmen who made netsuke and kiseru with ivory and wood lost their demand. Therefore, they tried to create a new field, ivory sculptures for interior decoration, and many elaborate works were exported to foreign countries or purchased by the Imperial Family. In particular, the works of Ishikawa Komei and Asahi Gyokuzan won praise in Japan.[61]

النسيج

The 1902 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica wrote, "In no branch of applied art does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results than that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more conspicuous progress during recent years. [...] Kawashima of Kyoto [...] inaugurated the departure a few years ago by copying a Gobelin, but it may safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with the pieces now produced in Japan".[62] Very large, colorful pictorial works were being produced in Kyoto. Embroidery had become an art form in its own right, adopting a range of pictorial techniques such as chiaroscuro and aerial perspective.[62]

الموسيقى

The interaction of Western and Japanese music in Meiji era is foremost linked to the military, religious and educational fields. The Japanese assimilated Western culture and its music with the same surprising speed. Music panorama in Japan gradually became lively and prolific where the Western-inspired style music was flourishing.[63][64][65]

الموسيقى العسكرية

The very first stage of Western adaptation in the Meiji period is associated with the military field. A little before the reopening of Japan the first military academy based on Dutch model was founded in Nagasaki where, alongside the military training, military music was taught, since it was acknowledged to be an important component of the martial arts. The first military band, called kotekitai, consisted of woodwind instruments and drums, was organized there.

Gradually, Western music became an integral part of the Japanese culture where the importance of Western music was undertaken as a part of a social project. The military bands played prominent role in the society. That included public concerts of Western music, which were held in a famous Rokumeikan Hall and Hibiya Open-Air stage in Tokyo, performing marches, patriotic music and European composers’ works (Richard Wagner, Charles Gounod, Peter Tchaikovsky).

With the contribution of foreign and Japanese authors, the first military music score collections were completed and published. In the military field, the Japanese conducting school was formed, the founders of which were English, French and German cultural figures such as John William Fenton, Charles Leroux, and Franz Eckert. Under their leadership, the first Japanese military conductors were raised: Suketsune Nakamura and Yoshitoyo Yotsumoto.[63]

الموسيقى المسيحية

Christian missions also became an important way for spreading Western-style music in Meiji era.

In the sixteenth century Portuguese missionaries introduced the first Western-style music to Japan: sacred choral music, music for organ, flute, harp, trumpet, violin, alto, double bass. However, soon Christianity, along with its institutions, was banned. In the Meiji era, the ban of Christianity was lifted. Thus, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant missionaries started actively preaching, and the introduction of sacred music became an integral part of their activities.

The Orthodox mission introduced traditional choral music in Japan. The great impact in the choral music development was made by Ukrainian musicians: conductors Yakov Tikhai (served in the Orthodox mission from 1874 to 1886) and Dmytro Livovsky (served in the Orthodox mission from 1880 to 1921). They organized the first traditional choirs in Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Tokyo (known as Nikolai-do), taught music in Tokyo Theological Seminary, completed and published the first musical score collections, and educated the first Japanese choir conductors and music teachers.[بحاجة لمصدر] Among them are Roman Chiba, Alexey Obara, Innokentiy Kisu, Yakov Maedako, Petr Tokairin, Ioan Nakashima, Moisei Kawamura, Ioan Owata, Pavel Isiya, Vasiliy Takeda, Andrey Abe, Alexandr Komagai, Fedor Minato, Alexey Sawabe, Luka Orit.

All of them became Orthodox Christians and adopted Christian names.[63]

التعليم

The educational field also was a major way for adopting Western-style music.[66] The educational reforms were led by Isawa Shūji (1851–1917) and Luther Whiting Mason (1828–1896). In 1880, the Music Research Institute in Tokyo (Ongaku Torishirabe Gakari), headed by Izawa Shuji, was founded. The Institute had three main tasks: 1) to introduce compulsory music teaching in schools, to introduce Western-style songs; 2) to train music teachers for the further development of professional musical activities; 3) to create music score collections for children, in which Japanese and Western style music elements could be combined. Thus, the first music scores “The First Collection for Primary School” was published in 1881. The newly educated music teachers organized lessons in singing, music theory, playing musical instruments (koto, kokyū, piano, organ and violin).

In 1887, the Music Research Institute was reformed into Tokyo Academy of Music, which gave the Institution a new status and contributed to its further development. Western music was regarded as an essential contributory factor for modernization. The new curriculum was improved, and the number and quality of the musical events increased.

Tokyo Academy of Music became the first Western-style music educational establishment in Japan. This was the nascence of schools teaching composition in the Western style in Japan, the genesis of an opera tradition in Japan, and laid the foundations for the Japanese formal tradition of familiarization with Western music.[63]

جداول التحويل

قبل 1873

Prior to Japan adopting the Gregorian calendar, it used the lunisolar Japanese calendar. The first five years of the era correspond to the following date ranges in the Gregorian calendar:

Conversion table for the first five years of the Meiji era to the Gregorian calendar
Meiji year Gregorian date range
1 October 23, 1868 – February 10, 1869
2 February 11, 1869 – January 31, 1870
3 February 1, 1870 – February 18, 1871
4 February 19, 1871 – February 8, 1872
5 February 9 – December 31, 1872

Conversely, the conversion table of Gregorian calendar years 1868 to 1872 to the traditional Japanese lunisolar calendar is shown below:

Conversion table of Gregorian calendar years 1868 to 1872 to the Japanese lunisolar calendar
Gregorian year Japanese calendar range
1868 Keiō 3/12/7 – Meiji 1/11/18
1869 Meiji 1/11/19 – 2/11/29
1870 Meiji 2/11/30 – 3/11/10
1871 Meiji 3/11/11 – 4/11/20
1872 Meiji 4/11/21 – 5/12/2

منذ 1873

On January 1, 1873, Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar. To convert any Gregorian calendar year between 1873 and 1912 to Japanese calendar year in Meiji era, 1867 needs to be subtracted from the year in question.

Meiji 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
AD 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885
Meiji 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
AD 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899
Meiji 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
AD 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912

انظر أيضاً

المصادر

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المراجع

وصلات خارجية

أرشيفات

سبقه
Edo period
تاريخ اليابان
عهد مـِيْ‌جي

1868–1912
تبعه
عهد تاي‌شو
سبقه
كى‌يو (慶応)
عهد في اليابان
مـِيْ‌جي (明治)

23 أكتوبر 1868 – 30 يوليو 1912
تبعه
تاي‌شو (大正)

قالب:Japanese era names

  1. تحويل قالب:امبراطورية اليابان