دارماتشاكرا

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Dharma wheel.png

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The dharmachakra (Sanskrit: धर्मचक्र, پالي: dhammacakka) or wheel of dharma is a symbol used in the Indian religions. It has a widespread use in Buddhism.[1][2] In Hinduism, the symbol is particularly used in places that underwent religious transformation.[3][4][5][6] The symbol also finds its usage in modern India.

Historically, the dharmachakra was often used as a decoration in East Asian statues and inscriptions, beginning with the earliest period of East Asian culture to the present.[7] It remains a major symbol of the Buddhist religion today.

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أصل الاسم

The Sanskrit noun dharma (धर्म) is a derivation from the root dhṛ 'to hold, maintain, keep',[8] and means 'what is established or firm'. The word derives from the Vedic Sanskrit n-stem dharman- with the meaning "bearer, supporter". The historical Vedic religion apparently conceived of dharma as an aspect of Ṛta.[9]


التاريخ والاستخدام

Ten Indus characters from the northern gate of Dholavira, dubbed the Dholavira Signboard.

Similar chakra (spoked-wheel) symbols are one of the most ancient in all Indian history. Madhavan and Parpola note that a wheel symbol appears frequently in Indus Valley civilization artifacts, particularly on several seals.[10][note 1] Notably, it is present in a sequence of ten signs on the Dholavira Signboard.[10][12]

Some historians associate the ancient chakra symbols with solar symbolism.[13] In the Vedas, the god Surya is associated with the solar disc, which is said to be a chariot of one wheel (cakra). Mitra, a form of Surya, is described as "the eye of the world", and thus the sun is conceived of as an eye (cakṣu) which illuminates and perceives the world.[14] Such a wheel is also the main attribute of Vishnu.[12] Thus, a wheel symbol might also be associated with light and knowledge.

الاستخدام البوذي والأهمية

Dharmachakra in front of a statue of Padmasambhava. Lake Rewalsar, Himachal Pradesh, India
Worshipers and Dharmachakra, Sanchi Stupa, South Face, West Pillar.

In Buddhism, the Dharma Chakra is widely used to represent the Buddha's Dharma (Buddha's teaching and the universal moral order), Gautama Buddha himself and the walking of the path to enlightenment, since the time of Early Buddhism.[15][1][note 2] The symbol is also sometimes connected to the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and Dependent Origination. The pre-Buddhist dharmachakra (Pali: dhammacakka) is considered one of the ashtamangala (auspicious signs) in Hinduism and Buddhism and often used as a symbol of both faiths.[16][note 3] It is one of the oldest known Indian symbols found in Indian art, appearing with the first surviving post-Indus Valley Civilisation Indian iconography in the time of the Buddhist king Ashoka.[15][note 2]

The Buddha is said to have set the "wheel of dharma" in motion when he delivered his first sermon,[17] which is described in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. This "turning of the wheel" signifies a great and revolutionary change with universal consequences, brought about by an exceptional human being. Buddhism adopted the wheel as a symbol from the Indian mythical idea of the ideal king, called a chakravartin ("wheel-turner", or "universal monarch"),[12][17] who was said to possess several mythical objects, including the ratana cakka (the ideal wheel). The Mahā Sudassana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya describes this wheel as having a nave (nābhi), a thousand spokes (sahassārāni) and a felly (nemi), all of which are perfect in every respect.[14] Siddhartha Gautama was said to have been a "mahapurisa" (great man) who could have chosen to become a wheel turning king, but instead became the spiritual counterpart to such a king, a wheel turning sage, that is, a Buddha.[18]

In his explanation of the term "turning the wheel of Dharma", the Theravada exegete Buddhaghosa explains that this "wheel" which the Buddha turned is primarily to be understood as wisdom, knowledge, and insight (ñāṇa). This wisdom has two aspects, paṭivedha-ñāṇa, the wisdom of self-realisation of the Truth and desanā-ñāṇa, the wisdom of proclamation of the Truth.[14] The dharmachakra symbol also points to the central Indian idea of "Dharma", a complex and multivalent term which refers to the eternal cosmic law, universal moral order and in Buddhism, the very teaching and path expounded by the Buddha.[19]

The original Lion Capital of Ashoka, from Sarnath. It originally supported a large dharmachakra on the top (reconstitution).

In the Buddhist Art at early sites such as Bharhut and Sanchi, the dharmachakra was often used as a symbol of Gautama Buddha himself.[18][14] The symbol is often paired with the triratna (triple jewel) or trishula (trident) symbolizing the triple gem, umbrellas (chatra), symbols of sovereignty and royal power, gems and garlands. It is also sometimes depicted alongside animals such as lions,[14] or deer.

There are different designs of the Buddhist dharmachakra with 8, 12, 24 or more spokes. In different Buddhist traditions, the different number of spokes may represent different aspects of the Buddha's Dharma (teaching). In the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition for example, the 8 spoked wheel represents the noble eightfold path, and the hub, rim and spokes are also said to represent the three trainings (sila, prajña and samadhi).[20]

In Buddhism, the cyclical movement of a wheel is also used to symbolize the cyclical nature of life in the world (also referred to as the "wheel of samsara", samsara-chakra or the "wheel of becoming", bhava-cakra).[14] This wheel of suffering can be reversed or "turned" through the practice of the Buddhist path. The Buddhist terms for "suffering" (dukkha) and happiness (sukha) may also originally be related to the proper or improper fitting of wheels on a chariot's axle.[21] The Indo-Tibetan tradition has developed elaborate depictions called Bhavacakras which depict the many realms of rebirth in Buddhist cosmology.

The spokes of a wheel are also often used as symbols of the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination. According to the Theravada scholar Buddhaghosa:

“It is the beginningless round of rebirths that is called the ’Wheel of the round of rebirths’ (saṃsāracakka). Ignorance (avijjā) is its hub (or nave) because it is its root. Ageing-and-death (jarā-maraṇa) is its rim (or felly) because it terminates it. The remaining ten links [of Dependent Origination] are its spokes [i.e. saṅkhāra up to the process of becoming, bhava].”[14]

The earliest Indian monument featuring dharmachakras are the Ashokan Pillars, such as the lion pillar at Sanchi, built at the behest of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. According to Benjamin Rowland:[14]

”The Sārnāth column may be interpreted, therefore, not only as a glorification of the Buddha’s preaching symbolised by the crowning wheel, but also through the cosmological implications of the whole pillar as a symbol of the universal extension of the power of the Buddha’s Law as typified by the sun that dominates all space and all time, and simultaneously an emblem of the universal extension of Mauryan imperialism through the Dharma. The whole structure is then a translation of age-old Indian and Asiatic cosmology into artistic terms of essentially foreign origin and dedicated, like all Asoka’s monuments, to the glory of Buddhism and the royal house.”

According to Harrison, the symbolism of "the wheel of the law" and the order of Nature is also visible in the Tibetan prayer wheels. The moving wheels symbolize the movement of cosmic order (ṛta).[22]

Buddha Dhamma and its modern Indian usages

Wheel of the chariot of the sun, Konark Sun Temple.
The State Emblem of India features the 24 spoke Dharmachakra from the Lion Capital of Ashoka.
Jain illustration with dharmachakra and the motto Ahiṃsā Paramo Dharma (non-violence is the highest dharma).

The dharmachakra is a symbol in the sramana religion of Budhha Dhamma.[23][24]

Wheel symbolism was also used in Indian temples in places that underwent a religious transformation from Buddhism,[25][26] such as Jagannath temple, whose deity is believed by some scholars to have a Buddhist origin.[27][28] It also finds use in other ancient temples of Odisha, the most famous of which is the Konark Sun Temple.

The 24 spoke Ashoka dharmachakra is present in the modern flag of India, representing the pan-Indian concept of Dharma.[29] The modern State Emblem of India is a depiction of the Lion Capital of Ashoka (Sanchi), which includes the dharmachakra. An integral part of the emblem is the motto inscribed in Devanagari script: Satyameva Jayate (إنگليزية: Truth Alone Triumphs).[30] This is a quote from the Mundaka Upanishad,[31] the concluding part of the Vedas.

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first Vice President of India, stated that the Ashoka Chakra of India represents the "wheel of the law of dharma", as well as "Truth or satya", "Virtue" as well as "motion", as in the "dynamism of a peaceful change".[29]


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Other uses and similar symbols

  • The main attribute of Vishnu is a wheel like weapon called the Sudarśanacakra.[12]
  • Similar wheel symbols were used as a solar symbol by the Ancient Egyptians.[32]
  • Some Buddha statues also depict the related Dharmachakra Mudrā, a hand sign depicting the turning of the Dharma wheel.
  • A very similar wheel symbol also appears in the flag of the Romani people, hinting to their nomadic history.
  • In non-Buddhist cultural contexts, an eight-spoked wheel resembles a traditional ship's wheel. As a nautical emblem, this image is a common sailor tattoo, which may be misidentified as a dharmachakra or vice versa.
  • The sonnenrad is a similar symbol used by occultists and neo-nazis.
  • Falun Gong uses the concept of a similar wheel as a central concept
  • In the Unicode computer standard, the dharmachakra is called the "Wheel of Dharma" and found in the eight-spoked form. It is represented as U+2638 (☸). As emoji: ☸️.


Gallery

Historical and archeological examples

  • Reconstitution of approximate layout of Sanchi at the time of the Mauryas, showing the pillar topped by a dharmachakra.

    Reconstitution of approximate layout of Sanchi at the time of the Mauryas, showing the pillar topped by a dharmachakra.

  • Sandstone depiction, c. 2nd Century BCE, Bharhut, Indian Museum – Kolkata.

    Sandstone depiction, c. 2nd Century BCE, Bharhut, Indian Museum – Kolkata.

  • Illustrated reconstruction of the pinnacles at Bharhut by Alexander Cunningham

    Illustrated reconstruction of the pinnacles at Bharhut by Alexander Cunningham

  • Eastern gateway of Bharhut stupa topped with a dharmachakra pinnacle

    Eastern gateway of Bharhut stupa topped with a dharmachakra pinnacle

  • Buddha represented by Dharmacakra, Sanchi Stupa no. 3.

    Buddha represented by Dharmacakra, Sanchi Stupa no. 3.

  • Dharmacakra on Pillar, Sanchi Stupa no. 3

    Dharmacakra on Pillar, Sanchi Stupa no. 3

  • Adoration of the pillar of Ashoka, Sanchi Stupa no. 3.

    Adoration of the pillar of Ashoka, Sanchi Stupa no. 3.

  • Illustration from Sanchi Stupa

    Illustration from Sanchi Stupa

  • Limestone Pilaster, 2nd century CE, Amaravathi, Indian Museum, Kolkata.

    Limestone Pilaster, 2nd century CE, Amaravathi, Indian Museum, Kolkata.

  • 1st century Gandhara Buddha footprint

    1st century Gandhara Buddha footprint

  • Gandharan Stele illustrating the first sermon at Sarnath, 2nd century, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

    Gandharan Stele illustrating the first sermon at Sarnath, 2nd century, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

  • Stele from Gandhara

    Stele from Gandhara

  • A sculpture depicting the Dharmachakra in the museum of Amaravathi

    A sculpture depicting the Dharmachakra in the museum of Amaravathi

  • Taxila coin with wheel and Buddhist symbols

    Taxila coin with wheel and Buddhist symbols

  • Coin found in Afghanistan, 50 BCE – c. 30 CE, at the latest before 50 CE.

    Coin found in Afghanistan, 50 BCE – c. 30 CE, at the latest before 50 CE.

  • Three Jewels, or Triratna. Eastern Afghanistan. Kushan period. 2–3 century.

    Three Jewels, or Triratna. Eastern Afghanistan. Kushan period. 2–3 century.

  • Dharmachakra Pravartana Mudra, Gupta period, 5th CE.

    Dharmachakra Pravartana Mudra, Gupta period, 5th CE.

  • Dhammacakka, National Museum, Bangkok, Thailand

    Dhammacakka, National Museum, Bangkok, Thailand

  • Khao Klang Nai, Si Thep Historical Park, Thailand.

    Khao Klang Nai, Si Thep Historical Park, Thailand.

  • Mon dharmachakra, VII or IX century, Sandstone

    Mon dharmachakra, VII or IX century, Sandstone

  • Dharma wheel, Japan, Kamakura period, 1200s CE, bronze – Tokyo National Museum.

    Dharma wheel, Japan, Kamakura period, 1200s CE, bronze – Tokyo National Museum.

  • Part of a Buddha-statue, showing the first five disciples of the Buddha at Sarnath and dharmachakra.

    Part of a Buddha-statue, showing the first five disciples of the Buddha at Sarnath and dharmachakra.

  • Japanese dharmachakra, late 13th century.

    Japanese dharmachakra, late 13th century.

  • Mandala Base, China, Ming dynasty, Cleveland Museum of Art.

    Mandala Base, China, Ming dynasty, Cleveland Museum of Art.

  • Dharma wheel, China, Qing dynasty, Qianlong period, 1736–1795 CE.

    Dharma wheel, China, Qing dynasty, Qianlong period, 1736–1795 CE.

  • Box with Ink Cakes: Yellow Ink Stick, China, Qing dynasty (1644–1912).

    Box with Ink Cakes: Yellow Ink Stick, China, Qing dynasty (1644–1912).

  • Dharmachakra Pravartana at National Museum, New Delhi

    Dharmachakra Pravartana at National Museum, New Delhi

Contemporary examples

National flags and official symbolism

Notes

  1. ^ These symbols, however, are elongated and not circular. Spoked wheel vehicle are virtually absent in Harappan civilisation.[11] Therefore interpreting these symbols as spoked wheel is a matter of debate.
  2. ^ أ ب Grünwedel e.a.:"The wheel (dharmachakra) as already mentioned, was adopted by Buddha's disciples as the symbol of his doctrine, and combined with other symbols—a trident placed above it, etc.—stands for him on the sculptures of the Asoka period."[15]
  3. ^ Goetz: "dharmachakra, symbol of the Buddhist faith".[16]

References

  1. ^ أ ب John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel, The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art, p. 524.
  2. ^ "Buddhist Symbols". Ancient-symbols.com. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  3. ^ Mansinha, Mayadhar (10 September 2021) [1960]. "CHAPTER VIII. THE POST SARALA PERIOD - A PERIOD OF EXPERIMENTS: I.The Buddhist Influence - The Metaphysical Poets". History of Oriya Literature. Creative Media Partners, LLC. ISBN 978-1015025486.
  4. ^ Nayak, Dr. Ganeswar (11 March 2014). "History of Odisha (From earliest times to 1434 A.D)" (PDF). Paralakhemundi: Shri Krushna Chandra Gajapati Autonomous College. p. 107.
  5. ^ Misra, Bijoy M. (2007). Bryant, Edwin Francis (ed.). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0195148923.
  6. ^ Sahu, Nabin Kumar (1958). "Sailodbhavas, Bhaumakaras and Somavamśīs". Buddhism in Orissa. Bhubaneshwar: Utkal University. p. x. OCLC 1391872675.
  7. ^ "Dharma And Ethics The Indian Ideal Of Human Perfection 1st Published". priscilla.work (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 2021-10-29.
  8. ^ Monier Williams, A Sanskrit Dictionary (1899): "to hold, bear (also: bring forth), carry, maintain, preserve, keep, possess, have, use, employ, practise, undergo"
  9. ^ Day, Terence (1 January 2006) [1982]. "The Concept of Obligation". The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Editions SR (volume 2). Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9780889208384. Retrieved 5 March 2024. The importance of the conception of Dharma in early brāhmanic thought is so considerable that it has seemed either that it replaced Ṛta as the leading philosophical and religious conception or that the earlier concept was at some time absorbed into it. It is probably more true that Dharma was conceived as an aspect of Ṛta which became so useful for framing religious, moral and social regulations, that interest in it and discussion of its applications to social and moral order eclipsed all discussions of metaphysical and theological ideas.
  10. ^ أ ب The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives By Jane McIntosh. p. 377
  11. ^ Shahane, Girish (2014-10-08). "What the absence of chariots in ancient Harappa means for Modi's Clean India plan". Scroll.in (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Archived from the original on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
  12. ^ أ ب ت ث Beer 2003, p. 14.
  13. ^ Issitt, Micah. Main, Carlyn. (2014). Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs, ABC-CLIO, p. 185.
  14. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د T. B. Karunaratne (1969), The Buddhist Wheel Symbol, The Wheel Publication No. 137/138, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy • Sri Lanka.
  15. ^ أ ب ت Grünwedel, Gibson & Burgess 1901, p. 67.
  16. ^ أ ب Goetz 1964, p. 52.
  17. ^ أ ب Pal 1986, p. 42.
  18. ^ أ ب Ludowyk, E.F.C. (2013) The Footprint of the Buddha, Routledge, p. 22.
  19. ^ Issitt, Micah. Main, Carlyn. (2014). Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs, ABC-CLIO, p. 186.
  20. ^ A Lamp Illuminating the Path to Liberation: An Explanation of Essential Topics for Dharma Students by Khenpo Gyaltsen (translated by Lhasey Lotsawa Translations, Nepal: 2014, pp. 247–248).
  21. ^ Sargeant, Winthrop (2009), The Bhagavad Gita, SUNY Press, p. 303.
  22. ^ Harrison 2010, p. 526.
  23. ^ Asha Kalia, Art of Osian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 8th–12th Centuries A.D. Abhinav Publications, 1982, chapter 16.
  24. ^ Sharma, Savita (1990). Early Indian Symbols: Numismatic Evidence, Agam Kala Prakashan, 1990 p. 51.
  25. ^ Misra 2007.
  26. ^ Sahu 1958.
  27. ^ Nayak 2014.
  28. ^ Mansinha 2021.
  29. ^ أ ب ت "The national flag code" (PDF). Mahapolice.gov.in. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  30. ^ قالب:Cite court
  31. ^ "Rajya Sabha Parliamentary Standing Committee On Home Affairs: 116th Report on The State Emblem Of India (Prohibition Of Improper Use) Bill, 2004" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2013.
  32. ^ Hall, Adelaide S. (2005). A Glossary of Important Symbols in Their Hebrew: Pagan and Christian Forms. Cosimo. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-59605-593-3.

Sources


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Further reading

External links

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