أوزميوم

(تم التحويل من اوزميوم)
هذا المقال هو عن العنصر الكيميائي. إذا كنت تريد الاستخدامات الأخرى، انظر أوزميوم (توضيح).
أوزميوم, 76Os
Osmium crystals.jpg
أوزميوم
المظهرفضي، بظل أزرق
الوزن الذري العياري Ar°(Os)
أوزميوم في الجدول الدوري
Hydrogen (reactive nonmetal)
Helium (noble gas)
Lithium (alkali metal)
Beryllium (alkaline earth metal)
Boron (metalloid)
Carbon (reactive nonmetal)
Nitrogen (reactive nonmetal)
Oxygen (reactive nonmetal)
Fluorine (reactive nonmetal)
Neon (noble gas)
Sodium (alkali metal)
Magnesium (alkaline earth metal)
Aluminium (post-transition metal)
Silicon (metalloid)
Phosphorus (reactive nonmetal)
Sulfur (reactive nonmetal)
Chlorine (reactive nonmetal)
Argon (noble gas)
Potassium (alkali metal)
Calcium (alkaline earth metal)
Scandium (transition metal)
Titanium (transition metal)
Vanadium (transition metal)
Chromium (transition metal)
Manganese (transition metal)
Iron (transition metal)
Cobalt (transition metal)
Nickel (transition metal)
Copper (transition metal)
Zinc (post-transition metal)
Gallium (post-transition metal)
Germanium (metalloid)
Arsenic (metalloid)
Selenium (reactive nonmetal)
Bromine (reactive nonmetal)
Krypton (noble gas)
Rubidium (alkali metal)
Strontium (alkaline earth metal)
Yttrium (transition metal)
Zirconium (transition metal)
Niobium (transition metal)
Molybdenum (transition metal)
Technetium (transition metal)
Ruthenium (transition metal)
Rhodium (transition metal)
Palladium (transition metal)
Silver (transition metal)
Cadmium (post-transition metal)
Indium (post-transition metal)
Tin (post-transition metal)
Antimony (metalloid)
Tellurium (metalloid)
Iodine (reactive nonmetal)
Xenon (noble gas)
Caesium (alkali metal)
Barium (alkaline earth metal)
Lanthanum (lanthanide)
Cerium (lanthanide)
Praseodymium (lanthanide)
Neodymium (lanthanide)
Promethium (lanthanide)
Samarium (lanthanide)
Europium (lanthanide)
Gadolinium (lanthanide)
Terbium (lanthanide)
Dysprosium (lanthanide)
Holmium (lanthanide)
Erbium (lanthanide)
Thulium (lanthanide)
Ytterbium (lanthanide)
Lutetium (lanthanide)
Hafnium (transition metal)
Tantalum (transition metal)
Tungsten (transition metal)
Rhenium (transition metal)
Osmium (transition metal)
Iridium (transition metal)
Platinum (transition metal)
Gold (transition metal)
Mercury (post-transition metal)
Thallium (post-transition metal)
Lead (post-transition metal)
Bismuth (post-transition metal)
Polonium (post-transition metal)
Astatine (metalloid)
Radon (noble gas)
Francium (alkali metal)
Radium (alkaline earth metal)
Actinium (actinide)
Thorium (actinide)
Protactinium (actinide)
Uranium (actinide)
Neptunium (actinide)
Plutonium (actinide)
Americium (actinide)
Curium (actinide)
Berkelium (actinide)
Californium (actinide)
Einsteinium (actinide)
Fermium (actinide)
Mendelevium (actinide)
Nobelium (actinide)
Lawrencium (actinide)
Rutherfordium (transition metal)
Dubnium (transition metal)
Seaborgium (transition metal)
Bohrium (transition metal)
Hassium (transition metal)
Meitnerium (unknown chemical properties)
Darmstadtium (unknown chemical properties)
Roentgenium (unknown chemical properties)
Copernicium (post-transition metal)
Nihonium (unknown chemical properties)
Flerovium (unknown chemical properties)
Moscovium (unknown chemical properties)
Livermorium (unknown chemical properties)
Tennessine (unknown chemical properties)
Oganesson (unknown chemical properties)
 Ru
↑
Os
↓
Hs
رينيوم ← أوزميوم → إريديوم
الرقم الذري (Z)76
المجموعة8
الدورةperiod 6
المستوى الفرعي  d-block
التوزيع الإلكتروني[Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2
الإلكترونات بالغلاف2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
الخصائص الطبيعية
الطور at د.ح.ض.قsolid
نقطة الانصهار3306 K ​(3033 °س، ​5491 °F)
نقطة الغليان5285 K ​(5012 °س، ​9054 °ف)
الكثافة (بالقرب من د.ح.غ.)22.59 ج/سم³
حين يكون سائلاً (عند ن.إ.)20 ج/سم³
حرارة الانصهار31 kJ/mol
حرارة التبخر378 kJ/mol
السعة الحرارية المولية24.7 J/(mol·K)
ضغط البخار
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 3160 3423 3751 4148 4638 5256
الخصائص الذرية
الكهرسلبيةمقياس پاولنگ: 2.2
طاقات التأين
  • الأول: 840 kJ/mol
  • الثاني: 1600 kJ/mol
نصف القطر الذريempirical: 135 pm
نصف قطر التكافؤ144±4 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
الخطوط الطيفية
خصائص أخرى
البنية البلورية ​hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
Hexagonal close packed crystal structure for أوزميوم
سرعة الصوت قضيب رفيع4940 م/ث (عند 20 °س)
قضيب رفيع87.6 W/(m·K)
التمدد الحراري5.1 µm/(m⋅K) (عند 25 °س)
المقاومة الكهربائية81.2 nΩ⋅m (at 0 °C)
الترتيب المغناطيسيمغناطيسية مسايرة[1]
القابلية المغناطيسية11×10−6 cm3/mol[1]
معامل القص222 GPa
معاير الحجم462 GPa
نسبة پواسون0.25
صلادة موز7.0
صلادة ڤيكرز300 MPa
صلادة برينل293 MPa
رقم كاس7440-04-2
التاريخ
الاكتشاف وأول عزلسميثسون تنانت (1803)
نظائر الأوزميوم v • [{{fullurl:Template:{{{template}}}|action=edit}} e] 
النظائر الرئيسية[2] اضمحلال
توا­فر عمر النصف (t1/2) النمط نا­تج
184Os 0٫02% 1.12×1013 y[3] α 180W
185Os synth 93.6 d ε 185Re
186Os 1٫59% 2.0×1015 y α 182W
187Os 1٫96% stable
188Os 13٫2% stable
189Os 16٫1% stable
190Os 26٫3% stable
191Os synth 15.4 d β− 191Ir
192Os 40٫8% stable
193Os synth 30.11 d β− 193Ir
194Os synth 6 y β− 194Ir
تصنيف التصنيف: أوزميوم
| المراجع

أوزميوم Osmium (IPA: /ˈɒzmiəm/) هو عنصر كيميائي رمزه Os ورقمه الذري 76. وهو فلز انتقالي صلب, قابل للقصف, أزرق-رمادي أو أزرق-أسود في مجموعة البلاتينات, وهو أحد أكثف العناصر الطبيعية[4] ويستعمل في بعض السبائك مع الپلاتين والإريديوم. ويتواجد الأوزميوم طبيعياً كسبيكة في خام الپلاتين. ورباعي أكسيده tetroxide يُستعمل في صبغ الأنسجة الحية وفي التلوين بالأصابع fingerprinting. سبائك الاوزميوم تستعمل في سِنون أقلام الحبر السائل , electrical contacts وفي تطبيقات أخرى تتطلب قدرة تحمل فائقة وصلابة.

الأُوزميوم عنصر فلزي صلب، رمزه Os. يزيد ثقله على الرصاص مرتين، وتصل كثافته إلى 22,48جم/سم§ عند درجة حرارة 20°م. ووزنه الذري 190,2، وعدده الذري 0,76. اكتشف الأوزميوم الكيميائي البريطاني سميثسون تنانت عام 1804م. ويُستخرج الأوزميوم من الخامات ذاتها المحتوية على البلاتين. وقد وُجد بعض الأُسميوم في مناجم البلاتين في كاليفورنيا وتسمانيا.

والفلز النقي مسحوق أسود دقيق، أو كتلة صلبة ذات لون رمادي ضارب إلى الزرقة. ودرجة غليان هذا الفلز هي حوالي 5,300°م. أما درجة الانصهار فهي 2,700°م، ولكن يُمكن أن يتبخر قبل الوصول إلى درجة حرارة عالية. وعندما تصل درجة تسخين الفلز إلى مايزيد على 93°م فإنه ينشر بُخاراً يمكن أن يضرّ بالعيون والرئتين والجلد. ويستخدم الفلز في صنع رؤوس الأقلام، ورأس ذراع الحاكي، وفي صناعة الأوزان والمقاييس.

Osmium is among the rarest elements in the Earth's crust, making up only 50 parts per trillion (ppt).[5][6] It is estimated to be about 0.6 parts per billion in the universe and is therefore the rarest precious metal.[7]

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السمات

الخصائص الطبيعية

Osmium, remelted pellet

Osmium has a blue-gray tint and is the densest stable element; it is approximately twice as dense as lead[8] and narrowly denser than iridium.[9] Calculations of density from the X-ray diffraction data may produce the most reliable data for these elements, giving a value of 22.587±0.009 g/cm3 for osmium, slightly denser than the 22.562±0.009 g/cm3 of iridium; both metals are nearly 23 times as dense as water, and 1+1⁄6 times as dense as gold.[10]

The reflectivity of single crystals of osmium is complex and strongly direction-dependent, with light in the red and near-infrared wavelengths being more strongly absorbed when polarized parallel to the c crystal axis than when polarized perpendicular to the c axis; the c-parallel polarization is also slightly more reflected in the mid-ultraviolet range. Reflectivity reaches a sharp minimum at around 1.5 eV (near-infrared) for the c-parallel polarization and at 2.0 eV (orange) for the c-perpendicular polarization, and peaks for both in the visible spectrum at around 3.0 eV (blue-violet).[11]

Osmium is a hard but brittle metal that remains lustrous even at high temperatures. It has a very low compressibility. Correspondingly, its bulk modulus is extremely high, reported between 395 and 462 GPa, which rivals that of diamond (443 GPa). The hardness of osmium is moderately high at 4 GPa.[12][13][14] Because of its hardness, brittleness, low vapor pressure (the lowest of the platinum-group metals), and very high melting point (the fourth highest of all elements, after carbon, tungsten, and rhenium), solid osmium is difficult to machine, form, or work.

الخصائص الكيميائية

مقال رئيسي: مركبات الأوزميوم
حالات الأكسدة للأوزميوم
−4 [OsIn6−xSnx][15]
−2 Na 2[Os(CO) 4]
−1 Na 2[Os 4(CO) 13]
0 Os 3(CO) 12
+1 OsI
+2 OsI 2
+3 OsBr 3
+4 OsO 2, OsCl 4
+5 OsF 5
+6 OsF 6
+7 OsOF 5
+8 OsO 4, Os(NCH 3) 4

Osmium forms compounds with oxidation states ranging from −4 to +8. The most common oxidation states are +2, +3, +4, and +8. The +8 oxidation state is notable for being the highest attained by any chemical element aside from iridium's +9[16] and is encountered only in xenon,[17][18] ruthenium,[19] hassium,[20] iridium,[21] and plutonium.[22][23] The oxidation states −1 and −2 represented by the two reactive compounds Na 2[Os 4(CO) 13] and Na 2[Os(CO) 4] are used in the synthesis of osmium cluster compounds.[24][25]

The most common compound exhibiting the +8 oxidation state is osmium tetroxide. This toxic compound is formed when powdered osmium is exposed to air. It is a very volatile, water-soluble, pale yellow, crystalline solid with a strong smell. Osmium powder has the characteristic smell of osmium tetroxide.[26] Osmium tetroxide forms red osmates OsO 4(OH)2−2 upon reaction with a base. With ammonia, it forms the nitrido-osmates OsO 3N− .[27][28][29] Osmium tetroxide boils at 130 °C and is a powerful oxidizing agent. By contrast, osmium dioxide (OsO 2) is black, non-volatile, and much less reactive and toxic.

Only two osmium compounds have major applications: osmium tetroxide for staining tissue in electron microscopy and for the oxidation of alkenes in organic synthesis, and the non-volatile osmates for organic oxidation reactions.[30]

Osmium pentafluoride (OsF 5) is known, but osmium trifluoride (OsF 3) has not yet been synthesized. The lower oxidation states are stabilized by the larger halogens, so that the trichloride, tribromide, triiodide, and even diiodide are known. The oxidation state +1 is known only for osmium monoiodide (OsI), whereas several carbonyl complexes of osmium, such as triosmium dodecacarbonyl (Os 3(CO) 12), represent oxidation state 0.[27][28][31][32]

In general, the lower oxidation states of osmium are stabilized by ligands that are good σ-donors (such as amines) and π-acceptors (heterocycles containing nitrogen). The higher oxidation states are stabilized by strong σ- and π-donors, such as O2−  and N3− .[33]

Despite its broad range of compounds in numerous oxidation states, osmium in bulk form at ordinary temperatures and pressures is stable in air, resists attack by all acids, including aqua regia, but is attacked by fused alkalis,[34] hot nitric acid, and hot aqua regia.[35][صفحة مطلوبة]

النظائر

المقالة الرئيسية: نظائر الأوزميوم

Osmium has seven naturally occurring isotopes, five of which are stable: 187 Os, 188 Os, 189 Os, 190 Os, and (most abundant) 192 Os. 189Os has a spin of 5/2 but 187Os has a nuclear spin 1/2. Its low natural abundance (1.64%) and low nuclear magnetic moment means that it is one of the most difficult natural abundance isotopes for NMR spectroscopy.[36]

186 Os undergoes alpha decay with such a long half-life (2.0±1.1)×1015 years, approximately 140000 times the age of the universe, that for practical purposes it can be considered stable. 184 Os is also known to undergo alpha decay with a half-life of (1.12±0.23)×1013 years.[3] Alpha decay is predicted for all the other naturally occurring isotopes, but this has never been observed, presumably due to very long half-lives. It is predicted that 184 Os and 192 Os can undergo double beta decay, but this radioactivity has not been observed yet.[37]

187 Os is the descendant of 187 Re (half-life 4.56×1010 years) and is used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks (see rhenium-osmium dating). It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons. This decay is a reason why rhenium-rich minerals are abnormally rich in 187 Os.[38] However, the most notable application of osmium isotopes in geology has been in conjunction with the abundance of iridium, to characterise the layer of shocked quartz along the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary that marks the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 65 million years ago.[39]


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التاريخ

Osmium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston in London, England.[40] The discovery of osmium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. Platinum reached Europe as platina ("small silver"), first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around the Chocó Department, in Colombia.[41] The discovery that this metal was not an alloy, but a distinct new element, was published in 1748.[42] Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue.[43] Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite.[43] Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed iridium in the black platinum residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough material for further experiments.[43] Later the two French chemists Fourcroy and Vauquelin identified a metal in a platinum residue they called ptène.[44]

In 1803, Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids[45] and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed was of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word πτηνος (ptènos) for winged.[46][47] However, Tennant, who had the advantage of a much larger amount of residue, continued his research and identified two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium.[43][45] He obtained a yellow solution (probably of cis–[Os(OH)2O4]2−) by reactions with sodium hydroxide at red heat. After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO4.[46] He named it osmium after Greek osme meaning "a smell", because of the ashy and smoky smell of the volatile osmium tetroxide.[48] Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.[43][49]

Uranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process, the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia, giving enough yield to make the process economically successful. At the time, a group at BASF led by Carl Bosch bought most of the world's supply of osmium to use as a catalyst. Shortly thereafter, in 1908, cheaper catalysts based on iron and iron oxides were introduced by the same group for the first pilot plants, removing the need for the expensive and rare osmium.[50]

Nowadays osmium is obtained primarily from the processing of platinum and nickel ores.[51]

التواجد

Native platinum containing traces of the other platinum group metals

Osmium is the least abundant stable element in Earth's crust, with an average mass fraction of 50 parts per trillion in the continental crust.[52]

Osmium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (iridium rich), and iridosmium (osmium rich).[45] In nickel and copper deposits, the platinum-group metals occur as sulfides (i.e., (Pt,Pd)S), tellurides (e.g., PtBiTe), antimonides (e.g., PdSb), and arsenides (e.g., PtAs
2); in all these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium. As with all of the platinum-group metals, osmium can be found naturally in alloys with nickel or copper.[53]

Within Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa,[54] though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States.[54] The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia, are still a source for platinum-group metals. The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains, Russia, which is still mined.[51][55]

الانتاج

Osmium crystals, grown by chemical vapor transport

Osmium is obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold and the platinum-group metals, together with non-metallic elements such as selenium and tellurium, settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud, which forms the starting material for their extraction.[56][57] Separating the metals requires that they first be brought into solution. Several methods can achieve this, depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture. Two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid.[54][58] Osmium, ruthenium, rhodium, and iridium can be separated from platinum, gold, and base metals by their insolubility in aqua regia, leaving a solid residue. Rhodium can be separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate. The insoluble residue, containing ruthenium, osmium, and iridium, is treated with sodium oxide, in which Ir is insoluble, producing water-soluble ruthenium and osmium salts. After oxidation to the volatile oxides, RuO 4 is separated from OsO 4 by precipitation of (NH4)3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride.

After it is dissolved, osmium is separated from the other platinum-group metals by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide.[59] The first method is similar to the procedure used by Tennant and Wollaston. Both methods are suitable for industrial-scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques.[60]

Neither the producers nor the United States Geological Survey published any production amounts for osmium. In 1971, estimations of the United States production of osmium as a byproduct of copper refining was 2000 troy ounces (62 kg).[61] Between 2010 and 2019, annual US imports of osmium ranged from less than 0.5 kg to 856 kg, averaging 157 kg/year.[62]

One method for producing osmium is from rhenium. 187 Re, which occurs 62.6% in nature, could absorb a neutron to become 188 Re. This has a short half-life of approximately 17 hours; the nucleus converts to 188 Os, which occurs 13.24% in nature.

التطبيقات

Because of the volatility and extreme toxicity of its oxide, osmium is rarely used in its pure state, but is instead often alloyed with other metals for high-wear applications. Osmium alloys such as osmiridium are very hard and, along with other platinum-group metals, are used in the tips of fountain pens, instrument pivots, and electrical contacts, as they can resist wear from frequent operation. They were also used for the tips of phonograph styli during the late 78 rpm and early "LP" and "45" record era, circa 1945 to 1955. Osmium-alloy tips were significantly more durable than steel and chromium needle points, but wore out far more rapidly than competing, and costlier, sapphire and diamond tips, so they were discontinued.[63]

Osmium tetroxide has been used in fingerprint detection[64] and in staining fatty tissue for optical and electron microscopy. As a strong oxidant, it cross-links lipids mainly by reacting with unsaturated carbon–carbon bonds and thereby both fixes biological membranes in place in tissue samples and simultaneously stains them. Because osmium atoms are extremely electron-dense, osmium staining greatly enhances image contrast in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies of biological materials. Those carbon materials otherwise have very weak TEM contrast.[30] Another osmium compound, osmium ferricyanide (OsFeCN), exhibits similar fixing and staining action.[65]

The tetroxide and its derivative potassium osmate are important oxidants in organic synthesis. For the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, which uses osmate for the conversion of a double bond into a vicinal diol, Karl Barry Sharpless was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001.[66][67] OsO4 is very expensive for this use, so KMnO4 is often used instead, even though the yields are less for this cheaper chemical reagent.

In 1898, the Austrian chemist Auer von Welsbach developed the Oslamp with a filament made of osmium, which he introduced commercially in 1902. After only a few years, osmium was replaced by tungsten, which is more abundant (and thus cheaper) and more stable. Tungsten has the highest melting point among all metals, and its use in light bulbs increases the luminous efficacy and life of incandescent lamps.[46]

The light bulb manufacturer Osram (founded in 1906, when three German companies, Auer-Gesellschaft, AEG and Siemens & Halske, combined their lamp production facilities) derived its name from the elements of osmium and Wolfram (the latter is German for tungsten).[68]

Like palladium, powdered osmium effectively absorbs hydrogen atoms. This could make osmium a potential candidate for a metal-hydride battery electrode. However, osmium is expensive and would react with potassium hydroxide, the most common battery electrolyte.[69]

Osmium has high reflectivity in the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum; for example, at 600 Å osmium has a reflectivity twice that of gold.[70] This high reflectivity is desirable in space-based UV spectrometers, which have reduced mirror sizes due to space limitations. Osmium-coated mirrors were flown in several space missions aboard the Space Shuttle, but it soon became clear that the oxygen radicals in low Earth orbit are abundant enough to significantly deteriorate the osmium layer.[71]


  • The Sharpless dihydroxylation: RL = largest substituent; RM = medium-sized substituent; RS = smallest substituent

    The Sharpless dihydroxylation:
    RL = largest substituent; RM = medium-sized substituent; RS = smallest substituent

  • Post-flight appearance of Os, Ag, and Au mirrors from the front (left images) and rear panels of the Space Shuttle. Blackening reveals oxidation due to irradiation by oxygen atoms.[72][73]

    Post-flight appearance of Os, Ag, and Au mirrors from the front (left images) and rear panels of the Space Shuttle. Blackening reveals oxidation due to irradiation by oxygen atoms.[72][73]


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محاذير

Bulk osmium metal is innocuous and not very reactive.[74][75] Instead, the most important safety concern is the potential for the formation of osmium tetroxide (OsO4), which is both volatile and very poisonous.[76] This reaction is thermodynamically favorable at room temperature,[77] but the rate depends on the surface area of the metal.[78][79] As a result, bulk material is less hazardous[80][81] than powders, which react quickly enough that samples can sometimes smell like OsO4 if they are handled in air.[82][83]

السعر

Between 1990 and 2010, the nominal price of osmium metal was almost constant, while inflation reduced the real value from ~950 USD/ounce to ~600 USD/ounce.[84] Because osmium has few commercial applications, it is not heavily traded and prices are seldom reported.[84]

ملاحظات

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