كركلا

(تم التحويل من Caracalla)
هذا المقال هو عن the Roman emperor. إذا كنت تريد the felid species، انظر Caracal. إذا كنت تريد the racehorse، انظر Caracalla (horse).
كركلا Caracalla
إمبراطور روماني للإمبراطورية الرومانية
Caracalla.jpg
العهد198 - 209 (مع سڤروس);
209 - 4 فبراير 211
(مع سڤروس و Geta);
فبراير - ديسمبر 211
(مع Geta);
ديسمبر 211 - 8 أبريل 217 (alone)
سبقهسپتيميوس سڤروس (بمفرده)
تبعهماكرينوس
وُلِد(186-04-04)أبريل 4, 186
لوجدنوم
توفيأبريل 8, 217(217-04-08) (aged 31)
كاري
الزوجفولڤيا پلوتيلا
الاسم الكامل
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus[1]
اسم الحكم
Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[2]
الأسرة المالكةالسڤرية
الأبسپتيميوس سڤروس
الأمجوليا دومنا
أسر امبراطورية رومانية
الأسرة السـِڤـِرية
Portrait of family of Septimius Severus - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017.jpg
The Severan Tondo
سپتيميوس سڤروس بمفرده
الأنجال
   گـِتا
   كركلا
سپتيميوس سڤروس، مع گـِتا و كركلا
گـِتا و كركلا
كركلا بمفرده
انقطاع، ماكرينوس
إل‌جبل
الأنجال
   ألكسندر سڤروس، بالتبني
ألكسندر سڤروس

كركلا (4 إبريل 186 - 8 أبريل 217) بالإنجليزية Caracalla ، أو ماركوس اوريليوس أنطونيوس أوغسطس كركلا ، هو إمبراطور روماني تولى عرش الإمبراطورية الرومانية في الفترة من 211-217. He was a member of the Severan dynasty, the elder son of Emperor Septimius Severus and Empress Julia Domna. Proclaimed co-ruler by his father in 198, he reigned jointly with his brother Geta, co-emperor from 209, after their father's death in 211. His brother was murdered by the Praetorian Guard later that year under orders from Caracalla, who then reigned afterwards as sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Caracalla found administration to be mundane, leaving those responsibilities to his mother. Caracalla's reign featured domestic instability and external invasions by the Germanic peoples.

Caracalla's reign became notable for the Antonine Constitution (لاتينية: Constitutio Antoniniana), also known as the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Roman Empire. The edict gave all the enfranchised men Caracalla's adopted praenomen and nomen: "Marcus Aurelius". Domestically, Caracalla became known for the construction of the Baths of Caracalla, which became the second-largest baths in Rome; for the introduction of a new Roman currency named the antoninianus, a sort of double denarius; and for the massacres he ordered, both in Rome and elsewhere in the empire. In 216, Caracalla began a campaign against the Parthian Empire. He did not see this campaign through to completion due to his assassination by a disaffected soldier in 217. Macrinus succeeded him as emperor three days later.

The ancient sources portray Caracalla as a tyrant and as a cruel leader, an image that has survived into modernity. His contemporaries Cassius Dio (ح. 155 – ح. 235) and Herodian (ح. 170 – ح. 240) present him as a soldier first and an emperor second. In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth started the legend of Caracalla's role as king of Britain. Later, in the 18th century, the works of French painters revived images of Caracalla due to apparent parallels between Caracalla's tyranny and that ascribed to king Louis XVI (ح. 1774–1792). Modern works continue to portray Caracalla as an evil ruler, painting him as one of the most tyrannical of all Roman emperors.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الأسماء

Caracalla's name at birth was Lucius Septimius Bassianus. He was renamed Marcus Aurelius Antoninus at the age of seven as part of his father's attempt at union with the families of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.[3][4][1] According to the 4th century historian Aurelius Victor in his Epitome de Caesaribus, he became known by the agnomen "Caracalla" after a Gallic hooded tunic that he habitually wore and made fashionable.[5] He may have begun wearing it during his campaigns on the Rhine and Danube.[6] Cassius Dio, who was still writing his Historia romana during Caracalla's reign,[7] generally referred to him as "Tarautas", after a famously diminutive and violent gladiator of the time, though he also calls him "Caracallus" in various occasions.[8]


النشأة

Young Caracalla; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg

ولد الإمبراطور كركلا ذو الاصول الليبية الأمازيغية من أبيه الإمبراطور سپتيميوس سڤروس وأمه جوليا دومنا (الحمصية) ولد في لوگدنوم (الآن ليون، فرنسا) سمي لوكيوس سپتيميوس پاسيانوس. وفي سن السابعة، تم تغيير اسمه إلى ماركوس أوريليوس أنطونيوس أوغسطس لتأكيد الانتماء إلى أسرة ماركوس أورليوس. اتخذ لقب كركلا، نسبة إلى إزاره المميز كالبرنس الذي كان يرتديه والذي اصبح موضة.

وكان الابن البكر للإمبراطور الروماني سپتيميوس سڤروس من 211 - 217. وكان واحدا من أكثر ذهانيي ( مريض نفسيا) الأباطرة الرومان. كان كركلا من أبرز الأباطرة الرومان الذين تركوا آثارا اجتماعية هامة وكان حكمهم لافتاً للأنظار بسبب منجزاته.

يبدو أن كركلا قد خلق، كما خلق كمودس، لكي يثبت أن نصيب الرجل من النشاط قلما يكفي لأن يجعله عظيماً في حياته، وفي قوته الجنسية معاً. وقد كان في صباه وسيماً صيّعاً، فلما بلغ سن رشده أصبح همجياً مفتتناً بالصيد والحرب، يقنص الخنازير البرية، وينازل أسداً بمفرده، ويحتفظ بعدد من الآساد بالقرب منه في قصره، واتخذ منها رفيقاً له في بعض الأحيان يجالسه على مائدته وينام معه في فراشه(7). وكان يستمتع بصحبة المجالدين والجند بنوع خاص، ويبقي أعضاء الشيوخ زمناً طويلاً في حجرات الانتظار حتى يفرغ من إعداد الطعام والشراب لرفاقه. ولم يكن يرضى أن يشترك معه أخوه في حكم الإمبراطوريّة، فأمر بقتل جيتا في عام 212، فاغتيل الشاب وهو بين ذراعي أمه، خضب أثوابها بدمه. ويقال انه حكم بالموت على عشرين ألفاً من أتباع جيتا، وعلى كثيرين من المواطنين، وعلى أربع من العذارا الفستية، اتهمهن بالزنا(8). ولما تذمر الجيش على أثر مقتل جيتا أسكته بأن نفحه بهبة تعادل كل ما ادخره سبتميوس من الأموال، وكان يفضل الجنود والفقراء على رجال الأعمال والأشراف؛ ولعل ما نقرؤه عنه من القصص التي يرويها كاسيوس ديو ليست إلا انتقاماً كتبه عضو في مجلس الشيوخ واشتدّت رغبته في جمع المال فضاعف ضريبة التركات بأن جعلها عشرة في المائة من مقدار التركة؛ ولما رأى أنها لا تنطبق إلا على المواطنين الرومان وسّع دائرة هذه الحقوق حتى شملت جميع الراشدين من الذكور الأحرار في الإمبراطوريّة كلها (212)؛ فنال هؤلاء حقوق المواطنين حين استتبعت أكثر ما يمكن أن تستتبعه من القروض وأقل ما تستتبعه من السلطان. وأضاف إلى زينات روما قوساً أقامه لسبتميوس سفيرس لا يزال باقياً إلى اليوم، وحمّامات عامة تشهد خرائبها الضخمة بما كانت عليه من عظمة وجلال، ولكنه ترك معظم شئون الحكم المدني لوالدته، وشغل نفسه بالحروب.

قيصر

Bust of Septimius Severus, Caracalla's father (Glyptothek, Munich)
Bust of Septimius Geta, Caracalla's brother (Louvre, Paris)

In early 195, Caracalla's father Septimius Severus had himself adopted posthumously by the deified emperor (divus) Marcus Aurelius (ح. 161–180); accordingly, in 195 or 196 Caracalla was given the imperial rank of Caesar, adopting the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Caesar, and was named imperator destinatus (or designatus) in 197, possibly on his birthday, 4 April, and certainly before 7 May.[9] He thus technically became a part of the well-remembered Antonine dynasty.[10]

أغسطس مشارك

Caracalla's father appointed Caracalla joint Augustus and full emperor from 28 January 198.[11][2] This was the day Septimius Severus's triumph was celebrated, in honour of his victory over the Parthian Empire in the Roman–Persian Wars; he had successfully sacked the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, after winning the Battle of Ctesiphon, probably in October 197.[12] He was also awarded tribunician power and the title of imperator.[9] In inscriptions, Caracalla is given from 198 the title of the chief priesthood, pontifex maximus.[10][9] His brother Geta was proclaimed nobilissimus caesar on the same day, and their father Septimius Severus was awarded the victory name Parthicus Maximus.[9]

In 199, he was inducted into the Arval Brethren.[10] By the end of 199 he was entitled pater patriae.[10] In 202, he was Roman consul, having been named consul designatus the previous year.[10] His colleague was his father, serving his own third consulship.[12]

In 202, Caracalla was forced to marry the daughter of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, Fulvia Plautilla, a woman whom he hated, though for what reason is unknown.[13] The wedding took place between the 9 and the 15 April.[10]

Caracalla & Geta: Bearfight in the Colosseum, Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1907

In 205, Caracalla was consul for the second time, in company with Geta – his brother's first consulship.[10] By 205 Caracalla had got Plautianus executed for treason, though he had probably fabricated the evidence of the plot.[13] It was then that he banished his wife, whose later killing might have been carried out under Caracalla's orders.[3][13]

On 28 January 207, Caracalla celebrated his decennalia, the tenth anniversary of the beginning of his reign.[10] The year 208 was the year of his third and Geta's second consulship.[10] Geta was himself granted the rank of Augustus and tribunician powers in September or October 209.[10][14][9]

During the reign of his father, Caracalla's mother Julia Domna had played a prominent public role, receiving titles of honour such as "Mother of the camp", but she also played a role behind the scenes helping her husband administer the empire.[15] Described as ambitious,[16] Julia Domna surrounded herself with thinkers and writers from all over the empire.[17] While Caracalla was mustering and training troops for his planned Persian invasion, Julia remained in Rome, administering the empire. Julia's growing influence in state affairs was the beginning of a trend of emperors' mothers having influence, which continued throughout the Severan dynasty.[18]

عهده كإمبراطور أكبر

Geta as co-augustus

On 4 February 211, Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (present day York, England) while on campaign in Caledonia, to the north of Roman Britain.[19]

والده سيبتيموس سيفيروس، الذي كان قد صعد الي العرش الامبراطوري 193، توفي في 211 عندما كان يتجول في حملته الشمالية في إبوراكم (يورك) في بريطانيا، وأعلن كركلا، كمشارك في الحكم كامبراطور مع أخيه جيتا. واعترف مجلس الشيوخ الروماني والشعب والولايات بولدي سبتيميوس، وتولى كلاهما الإمبراطورية بسلطة متكافئة ومستقلة بوصفهما وريثين شريكين في العرش الروماني. ولكن نظرا لأن كل منهما يريد أن يكون الحاكم الوحيد، كان التوتر واضحا بين الاشقاء في الأشهر القليلة التي حكما الامبراطوريه معا (حتى انهما فكرا في تقسيم الامبراطورية إلى قسمين بحيث يحتفظ (كراكلا) بأوروبا ويتخذ من روما عاصمة له، وأن تترك آسيا ومصر لأخيه جيتا الذي يمكن أن يتخذ من أنطاكية أو الإسكندرية عاصمة له، ولكن أمهما أقنعتهما بعدم القيام بذلك).

في ديسمبر 211 أقدم كركلا على قتل أخيه بعد موت أبيه في حضرة أمه لينفرد بالحكم ويقتل صهره وإبن عمه جيوس فلفيوس ويعدم أنصاره وقتل كل من له علاقة بأخيه أو كل من يحمل له وداً ، لقد قتل أكثر من عشرين ألفا من الرجال والنساء. كان الشعب يميل إلى الإمبراطور جيته وكان من نتائج قتله وقتل كل هؤلاء البشر أن أصبح الإمبراطور كركلا مكروها من الشعب.

لقد طلب من الفيلسوف سنيكا أن يعد رسالة تسوغ هذا القتل موجهة للسناتو (مجلس الشيوخ) ففعل ، ثم أمر بابنيان أن يفرغ كل ما أوتي من مهارة وفصاحة في سبيل تلمس الأعذار لهذه الفعلة ، ولكن المفاجاة التي لم يكن الإمبراطور كركلا أن يتوقعها هي رفض رجل العدالة هذا الأمر وقال في إباء وشجاعة مؤثرا فقدان حياته على ضياع شرفه: " إن قتل الأشقاء أهون من تسويغ هذا القتل " ، وبعد إلحاح الإمبراطور قال (بابنيان: " إن تسويغ قتل النفس ليس أسهل من اقتراف القتل " ، وقال ردا على الإمبراطور حينما حاول أن يجعل عمله دفاعا عن النفس : " إن اتهام قتيل برئ بالقتل قتل له ثان "، وكان هذا الجواب المشهور سبب ضياع حياته ، فما كان من الإمبراطور إلا أن يأمر الجنود المحيطين به بقتله ، فتقدم أحدهم ببلطة ، فما كان من (بابنيان) إلا أن انتهره لاستخدامه البلطة بدلا من السيف، وهكذا قتل دفاعا عن الحق وإظهار العدالة ... لقد أطلق عليه الشعب على الإمبراطور (قاتل أخيه وبابنيان) بعد إن كان يطلق عليه (قاتل أخيه).

حين سمع سكان الإسكندرية بزعم كركلا أنه قتل گـِتا دفاعاً عن النفس، كتبوا هجاءً يسخرون فيه من ذلك الزعم ومن أكاذيب كركلا الأخرى.[20][21] وفي 215، سافر كركلا إلى الإسكندرية ورد على الإهانة بأن قام بذبح وفد علية القوم، الذين قدموا للترحيب به في مدينتهم. ثم أمر قواته بالقيام بالمذابح والحرق والنهب بالمدينة لبضعة أيام.[22][23] وبعد المذبحة توجه كركلا شرقاً إلى أرمنيا. وبحلول 216، كان قد عبر أرمنيا وتوجه جنوباً إلى پارثيا.[24]

جوليا دومنا أمينة سره

وكان قد عين جوليا دمنا أمينة سره لشئون العرائض والرسائل. وكانت تشاركه أو تحل محله في استقبال رجال الدولة أو ذوي المكانة العليا من الأجانب. وهمس الوشاة بأن سلطانها عليه ناشئ من مضاجعته إياها، وأثار الفكيهون الجبناء من أهل الإسكندرية بتشبيههم لها وله بجوكستا Jocesta وأوديب. وأراد أن ينتقم من هذه الإهانة وأمثالها من جهة، ويأمن على نفسه من ثورة تتقد نارها في مصر أثناء حروبه لبارثيا من جهة أخرى، فزار المدينة وأشرف بنفسه (كما يؤكد المؤرخون) على قتل جميع أهل الإسكندرية القادرين على حمل السلاح(9).


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الحرب على پارثيا

ثم استولت على الإمبراطور (كاراكلا) فكرة غزو الشرق تشبها بالإسكندر المقدوني فانتقل إلى أنطاكية ليقوم بمهاجمة پارثيا، وعهد إلى والدته أوجستا (جوليا دومنا) تصريف شؤون الحكم المدني وإعتبرها أمينة سره ورئيسة ديوانه، تستلم الرسائل وتجيب عليها، لذا فهي تحل محله في إستقبال رجال الدولة والأجانب. وقد عُرفت تلك النزاعات والمناوشات بإسم الحرب الپارثية لكركلا.

الإسكندرية

احتجاج السكندريون بصفة عامة على الحكم الروماني أدى في عام 215م إثر زيارة كركلا للإسكندرية إلى قتل ما يزيد عن عشرين ألف سكندري بسبب قصيدة هجاء قيلت في كركلا.

ومع هذا فقد كان منشئ الإسكندرية المثل الذي احتذاه والمطمع الذي يأمل أن يبلغه. وللوصول إلى هذه الغاية أنشأ فيلقاً من 16000 جندي سمّاه "فيلق الاسكندر" وسلّحه بأسلحة مقدونية من الطراز القديم، وكان يأمل أن يُخضع به بارثيا كما أخضع الاسكندر فارس. وبذل كا ما يستطيع من الجهد ليكون جندياً عظيماً، فكان يشارك جنوده في طعامهم وكدحهم، وسيرهم الشاق الطويل، وكان يساعدهم في حفر الخنادق، وإقامة الجسور، ويظهر الكثير من ضروب البسالة في القتال، وكثيراً ما كان يتحدى أعداءه ويطلب إليهم أن يبارزوه رجلاً لرجل؛ ولكن رجاله لم يكن لهم مثل ما كان له من رغبة في قتال البارثيين، بل كان حبهم للغنائم أكثر من حبهم للقتال، فقتلوه في كارى Carrhae التي هزم فيها كراسس (217). ونادى مكرينس Macrinus قائد الحرس بنفسه إمبراطورياً، وأمر مجلس الشيوخ، بعد أن أظهر بعض التردد، بأن يتخذ كركلا إلهاً. ونفيت جوليا دمنا إلى إنطاكية بعد أن حرمت في خلال ست سنين من الإمبراطوريّة، ومن زوجها، ومن أبنائها، فأضربت عن الطعام حتى ماتت.

جوليا مايسا

وكان لها أخت تدعى جوليا مايسا Julia Maesa لا تقل عنها قدرة وكفاية. فعادت جوليا الثانية إلى حمص ووجدت فيها حفيدين يبشران بمستقبل عظيم. فأما أحدهما فكان ابن ابنتها جوليا سؤامياس Julia Soaemiae، وكان كاهناً شاباً من كهنة بعل، يسمى ڤاريوس أڤيتوس Varius Avitus، وهو الذي سمي فيما بعد الجابالس Elgabalus أي "الإله الخالق" . أما الثاني فكان ابن جوليا ماميا Gulia Mamaea ابنة مايسا، وكان غلاماً في العاشرة من عمره يدعى ألكسيانس Alexianus وهو الذي أصبح فيما بعد الكسندر سفيرس. ونشرت ميزا الشائعة القائلة إن فاريوس هو الابن الطبيعي لكركلا، وإن كان في واقع الأمر ابن فاريوس مرسلس، وأطلقت عليه اسم بسيانس؛ ذلك أن الإمبراطوريّة كانت أفضل عندها من سمعة ابنتها، وماذا يضيرها بعد أن مات مرسلس والد الشاب. وكان الجنود الرومان في سوريا قد ألغوا الشعائر الدينية السوريّة، وكانوا يشعرون باحترام لهذا القس الشاب الذي لا يتجاوز الرابعة عشرة من العمر تبعثه في قلوبهم عاطفة دينية قوية. يضاف إلى هذا أن مايسا أوعزت إليهم بأنهم إذا اختاروا الجابالس إمبراطوراً فإنها ستنفحهم بعطية سنية. ووثق الجند بوعدها لهم وأجابوها إلى ما طلبت، وضمت ميزا بذهبها إلى صفها الجيش الذي سيّره ماكرينوس لقتالها، ولما أن ظهر ماكرينس نفسه على رأس قوة كبيرة، تردد مرتزقة السوريين في ولائهم، ولكن مايسا وسؤامياس قفزتا من مركبتيهما، وقادتا الجيش المتردد إلى النصر؛ لقد كان رجال سوريا نساء، وكانت نساؤها رجالاً.

Constitutio Antoniniana

المقالة الرئيسية: Constitutio Antoniniana
Portrait of Caracalla (AD 212–217) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • أصدر سنة 212م مرسوم كركلا أو Constitutio Antoniniana (باللاتينية: دستور [أو مرسوم] أنطونينوس) الشهير حيث منح كركلا الجنسية الرومانية للأحرار في جميع أنحاء الإمبراطورية الرومانية من أجل زيادة الضرائب، حسب تفسير المؤرخ المعاصر كاسيوس ديو.[25] الذي جعل بموجبه جميع سكان الإمبراطورية سواسية، يخضعون لقانون واحد ضمن الحرية والحقوق الأساسية التي منحت إليهم. كما حصلت كل النساء في الامبراطورية على نفس حقوق النساء الرومانيات.


Before 212, the majority of Roman citizens had been inhabitants of Roman Italia, with about 4–7% of all peoples in the Roman Empire being Roman citizens at the time of the death of Augustus in AD 14. Outside Rome, citizenship was restricted to Roman coloniae[أ] – Romans, or their descendants, living in the provinces, the inhabitants of various cities throughout the Empire – and small numbers of local nobles such as kings of client countries. Provincials, on the other hand, were usually non-citizens, although some magistrates and their families and relatives held the Latin Right.[ب][29]

Dio maintains that one purpose for Caracalla issuing the edict was the desire to increase state revenue; at the time, Rome was in a difficult financial situation and needed to pay for the new pay raises and benefits that were being conferred on the military.[30] The edict widened the obligation for public service and gave increased revenue through the inheritance and emancipation taxes that only had to be paid by Roman citizens.[31] However, few of those that gained citizenship were wealthy, and while it is true that Rome was in a difficult financial situation, it is thought that this could not have been the sole purpose of the edict.[30] The provincials also benefited from this edict because they were now able to think of themselves as equal partners to the Romans in the empire.[31]

Another purpose for issuing the edict, as described within the papyrus upon which part of the edict was inscribed, was to appease the gods who had delivered Caracalla from conspiracy.[32] The conspiracy in question was in response to Caracalla's murder of Geta and the subsequent slaughter of his followers; fratricide would only have been condoned if his brother had been a tyrant.[33] The damnatio memoriae against Geta and the large payments Caracalla had made to his own supporters were designed to protect himself from possible repercussions. After this had succeeded, Caracalla felt the need to repay the gods of Rome by returning the favour to the people of Rome through a similarly grand gesture. This was done through the granting of citizenship.[33][34]

Another purpose for issuing the edict might have been related to the fact that the periphery of the empire was now becoming central to its existence, and the granting of citizenship may have been simply a logical outcome of Rome's continued expansion of citizenship rights.[34][35]

Alamannic war

Bust of Julia Domna (Museo Chiaramonti)

In 213, about a year after Geta's death, Caracalla left Rome, never to return.[31] He went north to the German frontier to deal with the Alamanni, a confederation of Germanic tribes who had broken through the limes in Raetia.[31][36] During the campaign of 213–214, Caracalla successfully defeated some of the Germanic tribes while settling other difficulties through diplomacy, though precisely with whom these treaties were made remains unknown.[36][37] While there, Caracalla strengthened the frontier fortifications of Raetia and Germania Superior, collectively known as the Agri Decumates, so that it was able to withstand any further barbarian invasions for another twenty years.

Provincial tour

The Roman Empire during the reign of Caracalla

In spring 214, Caracalla departed for the eastern provinces, travelling through the Danubian provinces and the Anatolian provinces of Asia and Bithynia.[10] He spent the winter of 214/215 in Nicomedia. By 4 April 215 he had left Nicomedia, and in the summer he was in Antioch on the Orontes.[10] By December 215 he was in Alexandria in the Nile Delta, where he stayed until March or April 216.[10]

When the inhabitants of Alexandria heard of Caracalla's claims that he had killed his brother Geta in self-defence, they produced a satire mocking this as well as Caracalla's other pretensions.[38][39] Caracalla responded to this insult by slaughtering the deputation of leading citizens who had unsuspectingly assembled before the city to greet his arrival in December 215, before setting his troops against Alexandria for several days of looting and plunder.[31][23]

In spring 216 he returned to Antioch and before 27 May had set out to lead his Roman army against the Parthians.[10] During the winter of 215/216 he was in Edessa.[10] Caracalla then moved east into Armenia. By 216 he had pushed through Armenia and south into Parthia.[40]

Baths

المقالة الرئيسية: Baths of Caracalla
The Baths of Caracalla

Construction on the Baths of Caracalla began in 211 at the start of Caracalla's rule. The thermae are named for Caracalla, though it is most probable that his father was responsible for their planning. In 216, a partial inauguration of the baths took place, but the outer perimeter of the baths was not completed until the reign of Severus Alexander.[41]

These large baths were typical of the Roman practice of building complexes for social and state activities in large densely populated cities.[41] The baths covered around 50 acres (or 202,000 square metres) of land and could accommodate around 1,600 bathers at any one time.[41] They were the second largest public baths built in ancient Rome and were complete with swimming pools, exercise yards, a stadium, steam rooms, libraries, meeting rooms, fountains, and other amenities, all of which were enclosed within formal gardens.[41][42] The interior spaces were decorated with colourful marble floors, columns, mosaics, and colossal statuary.[43]

  • تشييد حمامات كبيرة خارج روما، والتي لا تزال، المعروفة بحمامات كركلا، ما زالت آثارها قائمة حتى الآن، تمتد على مساحة قدرها (11) هكتار، وكانت تتسع لألف وستمائة زائر.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Caracalla and Serapis

Caracalla as Pharaoh, Temple of Kom Ombo

At the outset of his reign, Caracalla declared imperial support for the Graeco-Egyptian god of healing Serapis. The Iseum and Serapeum in Alexandria were apparently renovated during Caracalla's co-rule with his father Septimius Severus. The evidence for this exists in two inscriptions found near the temple that appear to bear their names. Additional archaeological evidence exists for this in the form of two papyri that have been dated to the Severan period and also two statues associated with the temple that have been dated to around 200 AD. Upon Caracalla's ascension to being sole ruler in 212, the imperial mint began striking coins bearing Serapis' image. This was a reflection of the god's central role during Caracalla's reign. After Geta's death, the weapon that had killed him was dedicated to Serapis by Caracalla. This was most likely done to cast Serapis into the role of Caracalla's protector from treachery.[44]

Caracalla also erected a temple on the Quirinal Hill in 212, which he dedicated to Serapis.[23] A fragmented inscription found in the church of Sant' Agata dei Goti in Rome records the construction, or possibly restoration, of a temple dedicated to the god Serapis. The inscription bears the name "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus", a reference to either Caracalla or Elagabalus, but more likely to Caracalla due to his known strong association with the god. Two other inscriptions dedicated to Serapis, as well as a granite crocodile similar to one discovered at the Iseum et Serapeum, were also found in the area around the Quirinal Hill.[45]

السياسة النقدية

O: laureate head of Caracalla

ANTONINVS PIVS AVG. GERM.

R: Sol holding globe, rising hand

Pontifex Maximus, TRibunus Plebis XVIIII, COnSul IIII, Pater Patriae

silver denarius struck in Rome 216 AD; ref.: RIC 281b, C 359
  • التخفيض في قيمة العملة الفضية بنسبة 25 ٪ من أجل دفع رواتب الجحافل.

The expenditures that Caracalla made with the large bonuses he gave to soldiers prompted him to debase the coinage soon after his ascension.[5] At the end of Severus' reign and early into Caracalla's, the Roman denarius had an approximate silver purity of around 55%, but by the end of Caracalla's reign the purity had been reduced to about 51%.[46][47]

In 215 Caracalla introduced the antoninianus, a coin intended to serve as a double denarius.[48] This new currency, however, had a silver purity of about 52% for the period between 215 and 217 and an actual size ratio of 1 antoninianus to 1.5 denarii. This in effect made the antoninianus equal to about 1.5 denarii.[49][50][51] The reduced silver purity of the coins caused people to hoard the old coins that had higher silver content, aggravating the inflation problem caused by the earlier devaluation of the denarii.[48][49]

السياسة العسكرية

Statue of Helios with features of Caracalla and Alexander, marble, Roman, ca. 2nd-3rd century AD, North Carolina Museum of Art.

During his reign as emperor, Caracalla raised the annual pay of an average legionary from 2000 sesterces (500 denarii) to 2700–3000 sesterces (675–750 denarii). He lavished many benefits on the army, which he both feared and admired, in accordance with the advice given by his father on his deathbed always to heed the welfare of the soldiers and ignore everyone else.[14][36] Caracalla needed to gain and keep the trust of the military, and he did so with generous pay raises and popular gestures.[52] He spent much of his time with the soldiers, so much so that he began to imitate their dress and adopt their manners.[5][53][54]

After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with emulating Alexander the Great.[55][56] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.[55][56][57] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.[57] As a consequence, the phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly triarii.[57]

Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that he visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour.[56]

الحرب الپارثية

المقالة الرئيسية: Parthian war of Caracalla

In 216, Caracalla pursued a series of aggressive campaigns in the east against the Parthians, intended to bring more territory under direct Roman control. He offered the king of Parthia, Artabanus IV of Parthia, a marriage proposal between himself and the king's daughter.[6][58] Artabanus refused the offer, realizing that the proposal was merely an attempt to unite the kingdom of Parthia under the control of Rome.[58] In response, Caracalla used the opportunity to start a campaign against the Parthians. That summer Caracalla began to attack the countryside east of the Tigris in the Parthian war of Caracalla.[58] In the following winter, Caracalla retired to Edessa, modern Şanlıurfa in south-east Turkey, and began making preparations to renew the campaign by spring.[58]

اغتياله (217)

At the beginning of 217, Caracalla was still based at Edessa before renewing hostilities against Parthia.[6] On 8 April 217 Caracalla was travelling to visit a temple near Carrhae, now Harran in southern Turkey, where in 53 BC the Romans had suffered a defeat at the hands of the Parthians.[6] After stopping briefly to urinate, Caracalla was approached by a soldier, Justin Martialis, and stabbed to death.[6] Martialis had been incensed by Caracalla's refusal to grant him the position of centurion, and the praetorian prefect Macrinus, Caracalla's successor, saw the opportunity to use Martialis to end Caracalla's reign.[58] In the immediate aftermath of Caracalla's death, his murderer, Martialis, was killed as well.[6] When Caracalla was murdered, Julia Domna was in Antioch sorting out correspondence, removing unimportant messages from the bunch so that when Caracalla returned, he would not be overburdened with duties.[15] Three days later, Macrinus declared himself emperor with the support of the Roman army.[59][60]

Gold medallion of Caracalla (Bode Museum, Berlin)

الذكرى

Damnatio memoriae

Caracalla was not subject to a proper damnatio memoriae after his assassination; while the Senate disliked him, his popularity with the military prevented Macrinus and the Senate from openly declaring him to be a hostis. Macrinus, in an effort to placate the Senate, instead ordered the secret removal of statues of Caracalla from public view. After his death, the public made comparisons between him and other condemned emperors and called for the horse race celebrating his birthday to be abolished and for gold and silver statues dedicated to him to be melted down. These events were, however, limited in scope; most erasures of his name from inscriptions were either accidental or occurred as a result of re-use. Macrinus had Caracalla deified and commemorated on coins as Divus Antoninus. There does not appear to have been any intentional mutilation of Caracalla in any images that were created during his reign as sole emperor.[61]

Bronze portrait of Caracalla (Antikensammlung Berlin)

التصوير الكلاسيكي

Caracalla wearing nemes and uraeus headdress as Roman pharaoh, from the Nile bank opposite Terenouthis. (Alexandria National Museum)[62]

Caracalla is presented in the ancient sources of Dio, Herodian, and the Historia Augusta as a cruel tyrant and savage ruler.[63] This portrayal of Caracalla is only further supported by the murder of his brother Geta and the subsequent massacre of Geta's supporters that Caracalla ordered.[63] Alongside this, these contemporary sources present Caracalla as a "soldier-emperor" for his preference of the soldiery over the senators, a depiction that made him even less popular with the senatorial biographers.[63] Dio explicitly presented Caracalla as an emperor who marched with the soldiers and behaved like a soldier. Dio also often referred to Caracalla's large military expenditures and the subsequent financial problems this caused.[63] These traits dominate Caracalla's image in the surviving classical literature.[64] The Baths of Caracalla are presented in classical literature as unprecedented in scale, and impossible to build if not for the use of reinforced concrete.[65] The Edict of Caracalla, issued in 212, however, goes almost unnoticed in classical records.[64]

The Historia Augusta is considered by historians as the least trustworthy for all accounts of events, historiography, and biographies among the ancient works and is full of fabricated materials and sources.[66][67][68][69][70] The works of Herodian of Antioch are, by comparison, "far less fantastic" than the stories presented by the Historia Augusta.[66] Historian Andrew G. Scott suggests that Dio's work is frequently considered the best source for this period.[71] However, historian Clare Rowan questions Dio's accuracy on the topic of Caracalla, referring to the work as having presented a hostile attitude towards Caracalla and thus needing to be treated with caution.[72] An example of this hostility is found in one section where Dio notes that Caracalla is descended from three different races and that he managed to combine all of their faults into one person: the fickleness, cowardice, and recklessness of the Gauls, the cruelty and harshness of the Africans, and the craftiness that is associated with the Syrians.[72] Despite this, the outline of events as presented by Dio are described by Rowan as generally accurate, while the motivations that Dio suggests are of questionable origin.[72] An example of this is his presentation of the Edict of Caracalla; the motive that Dio appends to this event is Caracalla's desire to increase tax revenue. Olivier Hekster, Nicholas Zair, and Rowan challenge this presentation because the majority of people who were enfranchised by the edict would have been poor.[30][72] In her work, Rowan also describes Herodian's depiction of Caracalla: more akin to a soldier than an emperor.[73]

أساطير العصور الوسطى

Amethyst intaglio of Caracalla, later re-carved as Saint Peter inscribed with the باليونانية: Ο ΠΕΤΡΟϹ o Petros "the stone" (treasury of Sainte-Chapelle)

Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain makes Caracalla a king of Britain, referring to him by his actual name "Bassianus", rather than by the nickname Caracalla. In the story, after Severus' death the Romans wanted to make Geta king of Britain, but the Britons preferred Bassianus because he had a British mother. The two brothers fought until Geta was killed and Bassianus succeeded to the throne, after which he ruled until he was overthrown and killed by Carausius. However, Carausius' revolt actually happened about seventy years after Caracalla's death in 217.[74]

الأعمال الفنية من القرن الثامن عشر والثورة الفرنسية

Septimius Severus and Caracalla, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, 1769 (Louvre)

Caracalla's memory was revived in the art of late eighteenth-century French painters. His tyrannical career became the subject of the work of several French painters such as Greuze, Julien de Parme, David, Bonvoisin, J.-A.-C. Pajou, and Lethière. Their fascination with Caracalla was a reflection of the growing discontent of the French people with the monarchy. Caracalla's visibility was influenced by the existence of several literary sources in French that included both translations of ancient works and contemporary works of the time. Caracalla's likeness was readily available to the painters due to the distinct style of his portraiture and his unusual soldier-like choice of fashion that distinguished him from other emperors. The artworks may have served as a warning that absolute monarchy could become the horror of tyranny and that disaster could come about if the regime failed to reform. Art historian Susan Wood suggests that this reform was for the absolute monarchy to become a constitutional monarchy, as per the original goal of revolution, rather than the republic that it eventually became. Wood also notes the similarity between Caracalla and his crimes leading to his assassination and the eventual uprising against, and death of, King Louis XVI: both rulers had died as a result of their apparent tyranny.[75]

التصوير الحديث

Caracalla has had a reputation as being among the worst of Roman emperors, a perception that survives even into modern works.[76] The art and linguistics historian John Agnew and the writer Walter Bidwell describe Caracalla as having an evil spirit, referring to the devastation he wrought in Alexandria.[77] The Roman historian David Magie describes Caracalla, in the book Roman Rule in Asia Minor, as brutal and tyrannical and points towards psychopathy as an explanation for his behaviour.[78][79] The historian Clifford Ando supports this description, suggesting that Caracalla's rule as sole emperor is notable "almost exclusively" for his crimes of theft, massacre, and mismanagement.[80]

18th-century historian Edward Gibbon, author of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, takes Caracalla's reputation, which he had received for the murder of Geta and subsequent massacre of Geta's supporters, and applied it to Caracalla's provincial tours, suggesting that "every province was by turn the scene of his rapine and cruelty".[76] Gibbon compared Caracalla to emperors such as Hadrian who spent their careers campaigning in the provinces and then to tyrants such as Nero and Domitian whose entire reigns were confined to Rome and whose actions only impacted upon the senatorial and equestrian classes residing there. Gibbon then concluded that Caracalla was "the common enemy of mankind", as both Romans and provincials alike were subject to "his rapine and cruelty".[31]

This representation is questioned by the historian Shamus Sillar, who cites the construction of roads and reinforcement of fortifications in the western provinces, among other things, as being contradictory to the representation made by Gibbon of cruelty and destruction.[81] The history professors Molefi Asante and Shaza Ismail note that Caracalla is known for the disgraceful nature of his rule, stating that "he rode the horse of power until it nearly died of exhaustion" and that though his rule was short, his life, personality, and acts made him a notable, though likely not beneficial, figure in the Roman Empire.[82]

انظر أيضا

ملاحظات

  1. ^ Coloniae were cities of Roman citizens founded in conquered provinces.[26]
  2. ^ The Latin Rights or ius Latii were an intermediate or probationary stage for non-Romans obtaining full Roman citizenship. Aside from the right to vote, and ability to pursue a political office, the Latin Rights were just a limited Roman citizenship.[27][28]

وصلات خارجية

  • Life of Caracalla (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)

الهامش

  1. ^ أ ب Hammond 1957, pp. 35–36.
  2. ^ أ ب Cooley 2012, p. 495.
  3. ^ أ ب خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة :20
  4. ^ Tabbernee, William; Lampe, Peter (2008). Pepouza and Tymion: The Discovery and Archaeological Exploration of a Lost Ancient City and an Imperial Estate. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-020859-7.
  5. ^ أ ب ت Dunstan 2011, pp. 405–406.
  6. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8.
  7. ^ Swan, Michael Peter (2004). The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3, 30. ISBN 0-19-516774-0.
  8. ^ Cassius Dio, Book 79
  9. ^ أ ب ت ث ج خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة :1
  10. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Caracalla". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in الألمانية). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 156–161. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8.
  11. ^ Grant, Michael (1996). The Severans: the Changed Roman Empire. Psychology Press. p. 19.
  12. ^ أ ب Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Septimius Severus". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in الألمانية). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 149–155. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8.
  13. ^ أ ب ت Dunstan 2011, p. 402.
  14. ^ أ ب Dunstan 2011, p. 405.
  15. ^ أ ب Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 76. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8.
  16. ^ Dunstan 2011, p. 299.
  17. ^ Dunstan 2011, p. 404.
  18. ^ Grant, Michael (1996). The Severans: the Changed Roman Empire. Psychology Press. p. 46.
  19. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8.
  20. ^ Morgan, Robert (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. FriesenPress. p. 31. ISBN 1-4602-8027-X.
  21. ^ Fisher, Warren (2010). The Illustrated History of the Roman Empire: From Caesar's Crossing the Rhine (49 Bc) to Empire's Fall, 476 Ad. AuthorHouse. p. 86. ISBN 1-4490-7739-0.
  22. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة :6
  23. ^ أ ب ت Melton, Gordon, J. (2014). Faiths Across Time: 5000 Years of Religious History. p. 338.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم ":10" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  24. ^ Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 413–414. ISBN 0-19-511875-8.
  25. ^ "Late Antinquity" by Richard Lim in The Edinburgh Companion to Ancient Greece and Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010, p. 114.
  26. ^ Whittock, Martyn John; Whittock, Martyn (1991). The Roman Empire. Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 0-435-31274-X.
  27. ^ Johnson, Allan; Coleman-Norton, Paul; Bourne, Frank; Pharr, Clyde (1961). Ancient Roman Statutes: A Translation with Introduction, Commentary, Glossary, and Index. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 266. ISBN 1-58477-291-3.
  28. ^ Zoch, Paul (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 91. ISBN 0-8061-3287-6.
  29. ^ Lavan, Myles (2016). "The Spread of Roman Citizenship, 14–212 CE: Quantification in the face of high uncertainty" (PDF). Past and Present. 230 (230): 3–46. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtv043. hdl:10023/12646.
  30. ^ أ ب ت Hekster & Zair 2008, pp. 47–48.
  31. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Dunstan 2011, p. 406.
  32. ^ Hekster & Zair 2008, p. 48.
  33. ^ أ ب Hekster & Zair 2008, pp. 48–49.
  34. ^ أ ب Rowan 2012, p. 127.
  35. ^ Hekster & Zair 2008, pp. 49–50.
  36. ^ أ ب ت Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 413. ISBN 0-19-511875-8.
  37. ^ Scott 2008, p. 25.
  38. ^ Morgan, Robert (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. FriesenPress. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4602-8027-0.
  39. ^ Fisher, Warren (2010). The Illustrated History of the Roman Empire: From Caesar's Crossing the Rubicon (49 BC) to the Empire's Fall, 476 AD. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-4490-7739-6.
  40. ^ Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 413–414. ISBN 0-19-511875-8.
  41. ^ أ ب ت ث Castex 2008, p. 4.
  42. ^ Oetelaar, Taylor (2014). "Reconstructing the Baths of Caracalla". Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage. 1 (2): 45–54. doi:10.1016/j.daach.2013.12.002.
  43. ^ Castex 2008, pp. 5–6.
  44. ^ Rowan 2012, pp. 137–139.
  45. ^ Rowan 2012, pp. 142–143.
  46. ^ Oman, C. (1916). "The Decline and Fall of the Denarius in the Third Century A.D.". The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society. 16: 37–60. JSTOR 42663723.
  47. ^ Scott 2008, p. 130–131.
  48. ^ أ ب Scott 2008, p. 123.
  49. ^ أ ب Bergeron, David (2007–2008). "Roman Antoninianus". Bank of Canada Review.
  50. ^ Scott 2008, p. 139.
  51. ^ Harl, Kenneth (1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. JHU Press. p. 128. ISBN 0-801-85291-9.
  52. ^ Grant, Michael (1996). The Severans: the Changed Roman Empire. Psychology Press. p. 42.
  53. ^ Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-1-317-49694-6.
  54. ^ Scott 2008, p. 21.
  55. ^ أ ب Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8.
  56. ^ أ ب ت Brauer, G. (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. p. 75.
  57. ^ أ ب ت Christopher, Matthew (2015). An Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action. Casemate Publishers. p. 403.
  58. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Dunstan 2011, pp. 406–407.
  59. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 75. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8.
  60. ^ Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2.
  61. ^ Varner, Eric (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. p. 184. ISBN 90-04-13577-4.
  62. ^ Guides, Rough (2011). The Rough Guide to Cairo & the Pyramids (in الإنجليزية). Rough Guides UK. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-4053-8625-8.
  63. ^ أ ب ت ث Manders 2012, p. 226.
  64. ^ أ ب Manders 2012, p. 227.
  65. ^ Tuck, Steven L. (2014). A History of Roman Art. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4443-3026-7.
  66. ^ أ ب Mehl, Andreas (2011). Roman Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 171.
  67. ^ Breisach, Ernst (2008). Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Third Edition. University of Chicago Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-226-07284-5.
  68. ^ Hadas, Moses (2013). History of Latin Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-231-51487-3.
  69. ^ Leistner, M. W. L. (1966). The Greater Roman Historians. University of California Press. p. 180.
  70. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome. Mohr Siebeck. p. 55. ISBN 3-16-148076-7.
  71. ^ Scott, Andrew G. (2015). Cassius Dio, Caracalla, and the Senate. De Gruyter Publishers. p. 157.
  72. ^ أ ب ت ث Rowan 2012, p. 113.
  73. ^ Rowan 2012, p. 114.
  74. ^ Ashley, Mike (2012). The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. Hachette UK. p. B21;P80. ISBN 978-1-4721-0113-6.
  75. ^ Wood, Susan (2010). "Caracalla and the French Revolution: A Roman tyrant in eighteenth-century iconography". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome.
  76. ^ أ ب Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. p. iii.
  77. ^ Agnew, John; Bidwell, Walter (1844). The Eclectic Magazine: Foreign Literature, Volume 2. Leavitt, Throw and Company. p. 217.
  78. ^ Magie, David (1950). Roman Rule in Asia Minor. Princeton University Press. p. 683.
  79. ^ Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. p. 127.
  80. ^ Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2.
  81. ^ Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. pp. 46–47.
  82. ^ Asante, Molefi K.; Ismail, Shaza (2016). "Interrogating the African Roman Emperor Caracalla: Claiming and Reclaiming an African Leader". Journal of Black Studies. 47: 41–52. doi:10.1177/0021934715611376. S2CID 147256542.

المصادر

  • إبراهيم حلمي الغوري وآخرون ، أطلس التاريخ القديم ، بيروت ، دار الشرق العربي ، ط1 ، 2004 .
  • سهيل زكار وأحمد غسان سبانو ، مائة أوائل من تراثنا ، دمشق ، عبدالهادي حرصوني ، ط1 ، 1980.
  • - د. فيليب حتى، تاريخ سوريا ولبنان وفلسطين ، بيروت ، دار الثقافة ، بدون تاريخ .
  • - د. قتيبة الشهابي، هنا بدأت الحضارة ، دمشق ، الأبجدية للنشر ، ط 1 ، 1988 .
  • - أندريه ايمار وجانين اوبوايه ، تاريخ الحضارات العام (روما وإمبراطوريتها)، بيروت ، دار عويدات ، ط 2 ، 1986.
  • - ول ديورانت ، قصة الحضارة (المجلد الحادي عشر) ، جامعة الدول العربية ، ط 5 .
  • - الموسوعة العربية الميسرة ، القاهرة ، دار الجيل ، الطبعة الثانية المحدثة ، 2001 .2 – الدوريات
  • د.عادل زيتون ، جوليا دومنا : عربية على عرش روما ، مجلة العربي ، الكويت ، العدد 558 ، مايو 2005.
  • د. رياض نعسان آغا، من طيوب الذاكرة.
كركلا
وُلِد: 4 أبريل 186 توفي: 8 أبريل 217
ألقاب ملكية
سبقه
سپتيميوس سڤروس 		الامبراطور الروماني
198–217
with
سپتيميوس سڤروس
(198–211)
و
گـِتا
(209–211) 		تبعه
ماكرينوس
مناصب سياسية
سبقه
Lucius Annius Fabianus,
Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus 		قنصل الامبراطورية الرومانية
202
مع سپتيميوس سڤروس 		تبعه
Titus Murrenius Severus,
Gaius Cassius Regallianus
سبقه
Lucius Fabius Cilo,
ماركوس أنيوس فلاڤيوس ليبو 		قنصل الامبراطورية الرومانية
205
مع پوبليوس سپتيميوس گـِتا 		تبعه
Marcus Nummius Umbrius Primus Senecio Albinus,
Lucius Fulvius Gavius Numisius Petronius Aemilianus
سبقه
Lucius Annius Maximus,
Gaius Septimius Severus Aper 		قنصل الامبراطورية الرومانية
208
مع پوبليوس سپتيميوس گـِتا 		تبعه
لوكيوس أورليوس كومودوس پومپيانوس،
Quintus Hedius Lollianus Plautius Avitus
سبقه
پومپيانوس،
Gaius Julius Camilius Asper 		قنصل الامبراطورية الرومانية
213
مع بالبينوس 		تبعه
Lucius Valerius Messalla Apollinaris,
گايوس أوكتاڤيوس أپيوس سوِتريوس سابينوس
ألقاب ملكية
سبقه
گـِتا 		ملك بريطانيا شاغر
شغور العرش
اللقب حمله بعد ذلك
كاروسيوس
تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=كركلا&oldid=3947093"