الغلاف الجوي للمريخ

(تم التحويل من Atmosphere of Mars)
للمزيد من المعلومات: مناخ المريخ
الغلاف الجوي حول المريخ
المريخ
صورة المريخ وغلاف الجوي الرقيق، التقطتها ڤايكنگ 1
معلومات عامة[2]
متوسط الضغط السطحي610 Pa (0.088 psi; 4.6 mmHg; 0.0060 atm)
الكتلة2.5x1016 kg[1]
التكوين[3][4]
ثاني أكسيد الكربون95%
نيتروجين2.8%
أرگون2%
أكسجين0.174%
أول أكسيد الكربون0.0747%
بخار الماء0.03% (متغير)

الغلاف الجوي للمشترى، هو مشابه الغلاف الجوي للزهرة، يتكون معظمه من ثاني أكسيد الكربون على الرغم من أنه أرق بكثير. تجدد الاهتمام بمكوناته منذ التحقق من وجود كميات ضئيلة جداً من الميثان عام 2003[5][6] والتي تشير لوجود حياة ربما قد نتجت أيضاً بواسطة عملية جيوميكانيكية، نشاط مائي حراري أو بركاني.[7]

يصل متوسط ضغط الجو على سطح المريخ إلى 600 پاسكال، حوالي 0.6% من متوسط ضغط مستوى سطح البحر على الأرض تصل إلى 103.3 پاسكال و0.0065% من 9.2 مليون پاسكال على الزهرة.

الغلاف الجوي للمريخ يتكون من حوالي 96% من ثاني أكسيد الكربون، 1.9% من الأراگون، 1.9% من النتروجين، وآثار من الأكسجين الحر، أول أكسيد الكربون، الماء والميثان وغازات أخرى،[8] لمتوسط كتلة مولية قيمتها 43.34 گ/مول.[9][10]

الغلاف الجوي مغبر تماماً، مما يعطي لسماء المريخ لوناً بنياً فاتحاً أو برتقالي-أحمر عند النظر للسطح؛ البيانات الواردة من جوال استكشاف المريخ تشير إلى أن جزئيات الغبار العالقة في الغلاف الجوي يصل قطرها إلى 1.5 ميكرومتر.[11]

في 14 ديسمبر 2014، أفادت ناسا عن التحقق من زيادة غير طبيعية، ثم انخفاض، في كميات الميثان بالغلاف الجوي لكوكب المريخ؛ كذلك؛ التحقق من وجود كيماويات عضوية مريخية في مسحوق تم الحصول عليه من حفر صخرة بواسطة الجوال كيريوسيتي. كذلك، تبعاً لدراسات حول نسبة الديوتريوم إلى الهيدروجين، معظم المياه في فوهة گال على المريخ التي عثر عليها فُقدت في الأوقات القديمة، قبل تشكل قاع البحيرة في الفوهة؛ بعدها، كميات ضخمة من المياه استمرت في الفقدان.[12][13][14]

وتُوجد ثلاثة أنواع من السحب في الغلاف الجوي المريخي. الأول قرنفلي اللون من الأتربة، وتغطي مساحات واسعة من الكوكب. والثانية سحب زرقاء اللون رقيقة وتظهر كأنها مصنوعة من بلورات ثلجية. أما النوع الثالث فهو سُحُب بيضاء أكبر سمكًا ويُعتقد أنها تتكون من بخار الماء، وتتحرك أحيانًا عبر سماء الكوكب.[15]

في نوفمبر 2015، أفاد بحث نشرت نتائجه مجلة ساينس بأن عاصفة شمسية تسببت في تدمير الغلاف الجوي، والمجال المغناطيسي لكوكب المريخ، وهو خيط مهم قد يميط اللثام عن لغز قديم يتعلق بكيفية تحول كوكب كان يشبه الأرض، إلى كوكب بارد وقاحل.

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تطور الغلاف الجوي

انظر أيضاً: Atmospheric escape and Water on Mars

The mass and composition of the Martian atmosphere are thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime. A thicker, warmer and wetter atmosphere is required to explain several apparent features in the earlier history of Mars, such as the existence of liquid water bodies. Observations of the Martian upper atmosphere, measurements of isotopic composition and analyses of Martian meteorites, provide evidence of the long-term changes of the atmosphere and constraints for the relative importance of different processes.


الغلاف الجوي في التاريخ المبكر

نسب النظائر لمختلف الأنواع في الغلافين الجويين للمريخ والأرض
نسبة النظائر المريخ الأرض المريخ / الأرض
D / H (in H2O) 9.3 ± 1.7 ‰[16][4] 1.56 ‰[17] ~6
12C / 13C 85.1 ± 0.3[16][4] 89.9[18] 0.95
14N / 15N 173 ± 9[16][19][4] 272[17] 0.64
16O / 18O 476 ± 4.0[16][4] 499[18] 0.95
36Ar / 38Ar 4.2 ± 0.1[20] 5.305 ± 0.008[21] 0.79
40Ar / 36Ar 1900 ± 300[22] 298.56 ± 0.31[21] ~6
C / 84Kr (4.4–6) × 106[23][4] 4 × 107[23][4] ~0.1
129Xe / 132Xe 2.5221 ± 0.0063[24] 0.97[25] ~2.5

In general, the gases found on modern Mars are depleted in lighter stable isotopes, indicating the Martian atmosphere has changed by some mass-selected processes over its history. Scientists often rely on these measurements of isotope composition to reconstruct conditions of the Martian atmosphere in the past.[26][27][28]

While Mars and Earth have similar 12C / 13C and 16O / 18O ratios, 14N is much more depleted in the Martian atmosphere. It is thought that the photochemical escape processes are responsible for the isotopic fractionation and has caused a significant loss of nitrogen on geological timescales.[4] Estimates suggest that the initial partial pressure of N2 may have been up to 30 hPa.[29][30]

Hydrodynamic escape in the early history of Mars may explain the isotopic fractionation of argon and xenon. On modern Mars, the atmosphere is not leaking these two noble gases to outer space owing to their heavier mass. However, the higher abundance of hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere and the high fluxes of extreme UV from the young Sun, together could have driven a hydrodynamic outflow and dragged away these heavy gases.[31][32][4] Hydrodynamic escape also contributed to the loss of carbon, and models suggest that it is possible to lose 1,000 hPa (1 bar) of CO2 by hydrodynamic escape in one to ten million years under much stronger solar extreme UV on Mars.[33] Meanwhile, more recent observations made by the MAVEN orbiter suggested that sputtering escape is very important for the escape of heavy gases on the nightside of Mars and could have contributed to 65% loss of argon in the history of Mars.[34][35][27]

The Martian atmosphere is particularly prone to impact erosion owing to the low escape velocity of Mars. An early computer model suggested that Mars could have lost 99% of its initial atmosphere by the end of late heavy bombardment period based on a hypothetical bombardment flux estimated from lunar crater density.[36] In terms of relative abundance of carbon, the C / 84Kr ratio on Mars is only 10% of that on Earth and Venus. Assuming the three rocky planets have the same initial volatile inventory, then this low C / 84Kr ratio implies the mass of CO2 in the early Martian atmosphere should have been ten times higher than the present value.[37] The huge enrichment of radiogenic 40Ar over primordial 36Ar is also consistent with the impact erosion theory.[4]

One of the ways to estimate the amount of water lost by hydrogen escape in the upper atmosphere is to examine the enrichment of deuterium over hydrogen. Isotope-based studies estimate that 12 m to over 30 m global equivalent layer of water has been lost to space via hydrogen escape in Mars' history.[38] It is noted that atmospheric-escape-based approach only provides the lower limit for the estimated early water inventory.[4]

To explain the coexistence of liquid water and faint young Sun during early Mars' history, a much stronger greenhouse effect must have occurred in the Martian atmosphere to warm the surface up above freezing point of water. Carl Sagan first proposed that a 1 bar H2 atmosphere can produce enough warming for Mars.[39] The hydrogen can be produced by the vigorous outgassing from a highly reduced early Martian mantle and the presence of CO2 and water vapor can lower the required abundance of H2 to generate such a greenhouse effect.[40] Nevertheless, photochemical modeling showed that maintaining an atmosphere with this high level of H2 is difficult.[41] SO2 has also been one of the proposed effective greenhouse gases in the early history of Mars.[42][43][44] However, other studies suggested that high solubility of SO2, efficient formation of H2SO4 aerosol and surface deposition prohibit the long-term build-up of SO2 in the Martian atmosphere, and hence reduce the potential warming effect of SO2.[4]

Atmospheric escape on modern Mars

Despite the lower gravity, Jeans escape is not efficient in the modern Martian atmosphere due to the relatively low temperature at the exobase (≈200 K at 200 km altitude). It can only explain the escape of hydrogen from Mars. Other non-thermal processes are needed to explain the observed escape of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.

Hydrogen escape

Molecular hydrogen (H2) is produced from the dissociation of H2O or other hydrogen-containing compounds in the lower atmosphere and diffuses to the exosphere. The exospheric H2 then decomposes into hydrogen atoms, and the atoms that have sufficient thermal energy can escape from the gravitation of Mars (Jeans escape). The escape of atomic hydrogen is evident from the UV spectrometers on different orbiters.[45][46] While most studies suggested that the escape of hydrogen is close to diffusion-limited on Mars,[47][48] more recent studies suggest that the escape rate is modulated by dust storms and has a large seasonality.[49][50][51] The estimated escape flux of hydrogen range from 107 cm−2 s−1 to 109 cm−2 s−1.[50]

Carbon escape

Photochemistry of CO2 and CO in ionosphere can produce CO2+ and CO+ ions, respectively:

CO
2 + hν ⟶ CO+
2 + e−
CO + hν ⟶ CO+
 + e−

An ion and an electron can recombine and produce electronic-neutral products. The products gain extra kinetic energy due to the Coulomb attraction between ions and electrons. This process is called dissociative recombination. Dissociative recombination can produce carbon atoms that travel faster than the escape velocity of Mars, and those moving upward can then escape the Martian atmosphere:

CO+
 + e−
 ⟶ C + O
CO+
2 + e−
 ⟶ C + O
2

UV photolysis of carbon monoxide is another crucial mechanism for the carbon escape on Mars:[52]

CO + hν (λ < 116  nm) ⟶ C + O.

Other potentially important mechanisms include the sputtering escape of CO2 and collision of carbon with fast oxygen atoms.[4] The estimated overall escape flux is about 0.6 × 107 cm−2 s−1 to 2.2 × 107 cm−2 s−1 and depends heavily on solar activity.[53][4]

Nitrogen escape

Like carbon, dissociative recombination of N2+ is important for the nitrogen escape on Mars.[54][55] In addition, other photochemical escape mechanism also play an important role:[54][56]

N
2 + hν ⟶ N+
 + N + e−
N
2 + e−
 ⟶ N+
 + N + 2e−

Nitrogen escape rate is very sensitive to the mass of the atom and solar activity. The overall estimated escape rate of 14N is 4.8 × 105 cm−2 s−1.[54]

Oxygen escape

Dissociative recombination of CO2+ and O2+ (produced from CO2+ reaction as well) can generate the oxygen atoms that travel fast enough to escape:

CO+
2 + e−
 ⟶ CO + O
CO+
2 + O ⟶ O+
2 + CO
O+
2 + e−
 ⟶ O + O

However, the observations showed that there are not enough fast oxygen atoms the Martian exosphere as predicted by the dissociative recombination mechanism.[57][35] Model estimations of oxygen escape rate suggested it can be over 10 times lower than the hydrogen escape rate.[53][58] Ion pick and sputtering have been suggested as the alternative mechanisms for the oxygen escape, but this model suggests that they are less important than dissociative recombination at present.[59]

Mars's escaping atmosphere—carbon, oxygen, hydrogen—measured by MAVEN's UV spectrograph).[60]


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التركيب الكيميائي الحالي

مقارنة الضغط
المكان الضغط
قمة أقمار اوليمپس 0.03 kilopascals (0.0044 psi)
متوسط المريخ 0.6 kilopascals (0.087 psi)
قاع Hellas Planitia 1.16 kilopascals (0.168 psi)
حد أرمسترونگ 6.25 kilopascals (0.906 psi)
قمة جبل إڤرست[61] 33.7 kilopascals (4.89 psi)
مستوى سطح البحر على الأرض 101.3 kilopascals (14.69 psi)

الرصد والقياس من الأرض

مقارنة تركيبات الغلاف الجوي الزهرة، المريخ، والأرض في الماضي والحاضر.


التكوين

أكثر الغازات وفرة على المريخ.

ثاني أكسيد الكربون

الأرگون

Argon isotope ratios are a signature of atmospheric loss on Mars.[62][63]

الماء

المقالة الرئيسية: الماء على المريخ

الميثان

انظر أيضاً: مناخ المريخ § وجود الميثان
الغازات المتطايرة على المريخ.
مصادر ومصارف المحتملة للميثان على المريخ.


قياسات الميثان في الغلاف الجوي للمريخ بواسطة المسبار كيريوسيتي.


ثاني أكسيد الكبريت

الأوزون

Rotation of Mars near opposition. Ecliptic south is up.


غبار الغلاف الجوي والسمات الديناميكية الأخرى

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غبار الغلاف الجوي

انظر أيضاً: mineral dust and Martian soil § Atmospheric dust

Under sufficiently strong wind (> 30 ms−1), dust particles can be mobilized and lifted from the surface to the atmosphere.[2][4] Some of the dust particles can be suspended in the atmosphere and travel by circulation before falling back to the ground.[64] Dust particles can attenuate solar radiation and interact with infrared radiation, which can lead to a significant radiative effect on Mars. Orbiter measurements suggest that the globally-averaged dust optical depth has a background level of 0.15 and peaks in the perihelion season (southern spring and summer).[65] The local abundance of dust varies greatly by seasons and years.[65][66] During global dust events, Mars surface assets can observe optical depth that is over 4.[67][68] Surface measurements also showed the effective radius of dust particles ranges from 0.6 μm to 2 μm and has considerable seasonality.[68][69][70]

Dust has an uneven vertical distribution on Mars. Apart from the planetary boundary layer, sounding data showed that there are other peaks of dust mixing ratio at the higher altitude (e.g. 15–30 km above the surface).[71][72][64]

Seasonal variations in oxygen and methane at Gale crater

العواصف الترابية

للمزيد من المعلومات: مناخ المريخ § العواصف الترابية, and العواصف الترابية § على المريخ
Difference of dust and water clouds: the orange cloud at the center of the image is a large dust cloud, the other white polar clouds are water clouds.
Detail of a Marsian dust storm, as viewed from orbit
A 700 kilometer long dust storm front (marked by the red arrow) as viewed from orbit at different angles. The red circle of Marsian terrain is just for orientation.
Mars without a dust storm in June 2001 (on left) and with a global dust storm in July 2001 (on right), as seen by Mars Global Surveyor

Local and regional dust storms are not rare on Mars.[64][2] Local storms have a size of about 103 km2 and occurrence of about 2000 events per Martian year, while regional storms of 106 km2 large are observed frequently in southern spring and summer.[2] Near the polar cap, dust storms sometimes can be generated by frontal activities and extratropical cyclones.[73][64]

Global dust storms (area > 106 km2 ) occur on average once every 3 Martian years.[4] Observations showed that larger dust storms are usually the result of merging smaller dust storms,[74][75] but the growth mechanism of the storm and the role of atmospheric feedbacks are still not well understood.[75][64] Although it is thought that Martian dust can be entrained into the atmosphere by processes similar to Earth's (e.g. saltation), the actual mechanisms are yet to be verified, and electrostatic or magnetic forces may also play in modulating dust emission.[64] Researchers reported that the largest single source of dust on Mars comes from the Medusae Fossae Formation.[76]

On 1 June 2018, NASA scientists detected signs of a dust storm (see image) on Mars which resulted in the end of the solar-powered Opportunity rover's mission since the dust blocked the sunlight (see image) needed to operate. By 12 June, the storm was the most extensive recorded at the surface of the planet, and spanned an area about the size of North America and Russia combined (about a quarter of the planet). By 13 June, Opportunity rover began experiencing serious communication problems due to the dust storm.[77][78][79][80][81]

Mars dust storm – optical depth tau – May to September 2018
(Mars Climate Sounder; Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter)
(1:38; animation; 30 October 2018; file description)

الزوابع الترابية

انظر أيضاً: زوبعة ترابية § الزوابع الترابية المريخية
A small dust devil on Mars - viewed by the Curiosity rover - (August 9, 2020)

Dust devils are common on Mars.[82][64] Like their counterparts on Earth, dust devils form when the convective vortices driven by strong surface heating are loaded with dust particles.[83][84] Dust devils on Mars usually have a diameter of tens of meter and height of several kilometers, which are much taller than the ones observed on Earth.[2][84] Study of dust devils' tracks showed that most of Martian dust devils occur at around 60°N and 60°S in spring and summer.[82] They lift about 2.3 × 1011 kg of dust from land surface to atmosphere annually, which is comparable to the contribution from local and regional dust storms.[82]

تعديل الريح للسطح

On Mars, the near-surface wind is not only emitting dust but also modifying the geomorphology of Mars over long time scales. Although it was thought that the atmosphere of Mars is too thin for mobilizing the sandy features, observations made by HiRSE showed that the migration of dunes is not rare on Mars.[85][86][87] The global average migration rate of dunes (2 – 120 m tall) is about 0.5 meter per year.[87] Atmospheric circulation models suggested repeated cycles of wind erosion and dust deposition can lead, possibly, to a net transport of soil materials from the lowlands to the uplands on geological timescales.[4]

Movement of sandy features in Nili Patera dune field on Mars detected by HiRISE. Photo credit: NASA/JPL Caltech/U. Arizona/JHU-APL

المد الحراري

انظر أيضاً: Atmospheric tide

Solar heating on the day side and radiative cooling on the night side of a planet can induce pressure difference.[88] Thermal tides, which are the wind circulation and waves driven by such a daily-varying pressure field, can explain a lot of variability of the Martian atmosphere.[89] Compared to Earth's atmosphere, thermal tides have a larger influence on the Martian atmosphere because of the stronger diurnal temperature contrast.[90] The surface pressure measured by Mars rovers showed clear signals of thermal tides, although the variation also depends on the shape of the planet's surface and the amount of suspended dust in the atmosphere.[91] The atmospheric waves can also travel vertically and affect the temperature and water-ice content in the middle atmosphere of Mars.[89]

Orographic clouds

انظر أيضاً: Orographic lift § Associated clouds
Water-ice clouds formed in the vicinity of the Arsia Mons volcano. The image was taken on 21 September 2018, but similar cloud formation events had been observed in the same site before. Photo credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin

On Earth, mountain ranges sometimes force an air mass to rise and cool down. As a result, water vapor becomes saturated and clouds are formed during the lifting process.[92] On Mars, orbiters have observed a seasonally recurrent formation of huge water-ice clouds around the downwind side of the 20 km-high volcanoes Arsia Mons, which is likely caused by the same mechanism.[93][94]

إمكانية استيطان البشر

المقالة الرئيسية: In-situ resource utilization, استصلاح المريخ, and استعمار المريخ

التاريخ

Mars's escaping atmosphere—carbon, oxygen, hydrogen—made by MAVEN UV spectrograph).[60]

معرض الصور

Martian sky with clouds at sunset, viewed by InSight.
Polar ice cap with the depth of the atmosphere, as well as a large orographic cloud visible at the horizon over Olympos Mons
Martian atmosphere with cloud cover over Solis Planum
Cloud cover over Tempe Terra
Cloud cover over Charitum Montes
Martian sunset by Spirit rover at Gusev crater (May, 2005).
Martian sunset by Pathfinder at Ares Vallis (July, 1997).

انظر ايضاً

 هناك كتاب ، النظام الشمسي، في معرفة الكتب.


2


المصادر

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