ضريح ياسوكوني

Coordinates: 35°41′39″N 139°44′35″E / 35.69417°N 139.74306°E / 35.69417; 139.74306
(تم التحويل من معبد ياسوكوني)
"ياسوكوني" redirects here. For الفيلم, see ياسوكوني (فيلم).
ضريح ياسوكوني
靖国神社
Yasukuni Shrine
Yasukuni Shrine 201005.jpg
هاي‌دن أو قاعة العبادة
الدين
الارتباطشنتو
العيدShunki Reitaisai (Spring)
Shuki Reitaisai (Autumn)
Typeضريح امبراطوري Chokusaisha
(سابقاً bekkaku-kanpeisha)
الموقع
الموقع3-1-1 كودانكيتا، تشي‌يودا، طوكيو 102-8246، اليابان
ضريح ياسوكوني is located in اليابان
ضريح ياسوكوني
تظهر داخل اليابان
الإحداثيات الجغرافية35°41′39″N 139°44′35″E / 35.69417°N 139.74306°E / 35.69417; 139.74306
العمارة
النمط المعماريShinmei-zukuri,
Copper roofing (dōbanbuki)
المؤسسمـِيْ‌جي
تاريخ التأسيسيونيو 1869
الموقع الإلكتروني
http://www.yasukuni.or.jp/english/

ضريح ياسوكوني (靖国神社أو靖國神社, Yasukuni Jinja) هو ضريح شنتو يقع في تشي‌يودا، طوكيو، اليابان. وقد أنشأه الامبراطور مـِيْ‌جي لتكريم الأشخاص الذين بذلوا أرواحهم في خدمة امبراطورية اليابان أثناء استعادة مـِيْ‌جي.[1] يسرد الضريح أسماء وأصول وتاريخ ميلاد ومحل وفاة 2.466.532 رجل، إمرأة وطفل ويمتد من حرب بوشين عام 1867 حتى حرب الهند الصينية الأولى في 1946-1954.[2] الغرض من الضريح توسع على مر السنين ليضم أولئك ماتوا في حروب اليابان من بداية مـِيْ‌جي و فترة تايشو والجزء الأصغر من فترة شوا.[3]

ضريح ياسوكوني چين‌رِىْ‌شا أسسه الكهنوت لتكريم الذين قاتلوا في سبيل الامبراطورية وأي شخص آخر توفى في الحرب؛ وتضم الجنود اليابانيين لكل من شگونية تكوگاوا وجمهورية إزو وكذلك الذين يمثلون الجيوش الأجنبية مثل القوات البريطانية، الأمريكية، الصينية، الكورية الجنوبية وجنوب شرق آسيا.

يكرم ضريح هوندن أي شخص توفى من أجل الامبراطورية. لذلك لا يقتصر على الجنود ولكن يشمل أيضاً أسماء عمال الإنقاذ، عمال المصانع، المواطنون وأصحاب العرقية الغير يابانية مثل التايوانيون والكوريون الذين خدموا اليابان. يوجد أيضاً تماثيل لتكريم الحيوانات الذين لقوا حتفهم في الحرب وللأمهات الذين ربوا أطفالهم بمفردهم بسبب الحرب. يوجد أيضاً مكتبة أرشيفية لجمع المعلومات عن كل شخص مكرم بالضريح ومتحف للحرب. ظهر الجدل حول تكريس لضريح لعدد من مجرمي الحرب من الحرب العالمية الثانية. ليس هناك تحيز عندما يكرم؛ يعتبر الجميع متساوون بغض النظر عن الوضع الاجتماعي، الأعمال الذين يعيشون أو عوامل أخرى.[4] المطلب الوحيد لتكريم الشخص هو أن يكون قد توفى في خدمة امبراطورية اليابان، كما يرى أصحاب هذا الضريح أنه ليس يكن هناك أي سبب لاستبعاد المدانين بارتكاب جرائم.[5] ادراج أسماءهم تسبب في توتر سياسي خاصة بين الصين وكوريا الجنوبية، التي تزعم أنه دليل على إنكار اليابان لعدم إرتكاب أي جرم أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية. ويقول مناصروه أن رفض إدراج أسماؤهم سوف يخرجهم من خدمة اليابان وبالتالي ينفي إرتكابهم بأي جرائم لصالح الامبراطور. استمر هذا الجدل في الظهور كلما خطط سياسيون لزيارة الضريح ومنهم سياسيون أجانب مثل لي تنگ-هوي، حيث له شقيق مكرم في هوندن.[6] يرى سياسيون من أقصى اليسار الضريح كرمز للامبريالية اليابانية، بينما سياسو أقصى اليمين يعتبرونهم رمزاً للوطنية.[7]

ياسوكوني هو ضريح يأوي النفوس الحقيقية للمتوفى ككامي، أو "كأرواح" كما تُعرف بشكل عام بالإنگليزية. هذا النشاط محصوراً كأمر ديني منذ انفصال دولة الشينتو والحكومة اليابانية عام 1945. للكهانة في الضريح استقلال ذاتي ديني كامل لتقرير شخصية وكيفية المكرمون في الضريح. يعتقدون أن هذا التكريم دائم ولا رجعة في. حسب اعتقادات الشينتو، بتكريم كامي، يوفر ضريح ياسوكوني اقامة دائمة لأرواح من قاتلوا لصالح الامبراطور. جميع الكامي المكرمون في ياسوكوني يشغلون نفس المقعد المفرد. الضريح مكرس لمنح السلام والراحة لجميع المكرمين به. كان المكان الوحيد الذي انحى له امبراطور اليابان.

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التاريخ

انظر أيضاً: State Shinto and شوكونشا

المؤسسة لقتلى حرب بوشين واستعراش مـِيْ‌جي

طوكيو شوكونشا في 1873

كان الاسم الأصلي لموقع ضريح ياسوكوني هو طوكيو شوكونشا (東京招魂社)، وكن قد أختير بأمر من الامبراطور مـِيْ‌جي.[8] هذا الضريح كان يكرم جنود حرب بوشين ممن قاتلوا وتوفوا من أجل استرداد مـِيْ‌جي.[9] وكان واحد من عشرات الأضرحة التذكارية التي بنيت في اليابان في ذلك الوقت كجزء من برنامج دولة الشنتو الذي تديره الحكومة. عام 1879، أعيد تسمية الضريح باسم ياسوكوني جينجا. [10] وأصبح أحد أضرحة الشنتو الرئيسية، بالإضافة لكون ضريح قومي رئيسي لتكريم ضحايا الحرب. اسم ياسوكوني، مقتبس من عبارة 「吾以靖国也」 في نص صيني من الفترة الكلاسيكية زوو ژوان (Scroll 6, 23rd Year of Duke Xi)، ويعني حرفياً " "إصلاح الأمة" وكان قد اختاره الامبراطور مـِيْ‌جي.[11] يكتب الاسم رسمياً 靖國神社، والاستخدام القديم له (قبل الحرب) باستخدام حروف جيوجيتاي.

من الحرب الصينية اليابانية الأولى إلى الحرب الصينية اليابانية الثانية

The enshrinement of war dead at Yasukuni was transferred to military control in 1887. As the Empire of Japan expanded, Okinawans, Ainu and Koreans were enshrined at Yasukuni alongside ethnic Japanese. Emperor Meiji refused to allow the enshrinement of Taiwanese due to the organized resistance that followed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, but Taiwanese were later admitted due to the need to conscript them during World War II.[12] In 1932, two Sophia University (Jōchi Daigaku) Catholic students refused visit to Yasukuni Shrine on the grounds that it was contrary to their religious convictions.[13]

In 1936, the Society for the Propagation of the Faith (Propaganda Fide) of the Roman Curia issued the Instruction Pluries Instanterque,[14] and approved visits to Yasukuni Shrine as an expression of patriotic motive.[15] This response of the Catholic Church helped the Jesuit university avoid a fateful crisis, but it meant its bowing down to the military power and control by Emperor system. [مطلوب توضيح]قالب:Opinion

أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية وفترة سيطرة GHQ

انظر أيضاً: Statism in Shōwa Japan and Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II

By the 1930s, the military government sought centralized state control over memorialization of the war dead, giving Yasukuni a more central role. Enshrinements at Yasukuni were originally announced in the government's official gazette so that the souls could be treated as national heroes. In April 1944, this practice ended and the identities of the spirits were concealed from the general public.[12]

The shrine had a critical role in military and civilian morale during the war era as a symbol of dedication to the Emperor.[16] Enshrinement at Yasukuni signified meaning and nobility to those who died for their country. During the final days of the war, it was common for soldiers sent on kamikaze suicide missions to say that they would "meet again at Yasukuni" following their death.[17][18] Military songs created at that time often included information about Yasukuni, such as Doki no Sakura(同期の桜) and Calming the country(国の鎮め). At that time, however, the coalition saw that Japan, which was in a tight corner, was using Yasukuni for propaganda purposes. The main point is that the Yasukuni is used as a means of pressure to induce soldiers to choose suicide bombing to escape desperate situations, or to socially bury those who are captured or want to surrender.[19]

بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية، أعلنت سلطات الاحتلال توجيه الشنتو. هذا التوجيه يأمر بفصل الكنيسة عن الدولة ويضع نهاية لدولة الشنتو. أُجبر ضريح ياسوكوني على أن يصبح مؤسسة حكومية علمانية أو أن يصبح مؤسسة دينية مستقلة عن الحكومة اليابانية. قرر الشعب أن الضريح يجب أن يصبح مؤسسة دينية بتمويل خاص. منذ هذا القرار عام 1946، استمر ضريح ياسوكوني كمؤسسة دينية بتمويل وادارة خاصة.[20]

تؤدي طقوس الشنتو في الضريح، والذي، حسب اعتقادات الشنتو، هو مأوى كامي، أو أرواح جميع الأتباع اليابانيين، ويشملون الأتباع الامبراطوريون (الكوريون والتايوانيون) والمدنيون الذين توفوا في خدمة الامبراطور أثناء مشاركتهم (بالإجبار أو بارادتهم الحرة) في نزاعات الأمة قبل 1951.

The GHQ planned to burn down the Yasukuni Shrine and build a dog race course in its place.[21] However, Father Bruno Bitter of the Roman Curia and Father Patrick Byrne of Maryknoll insisted to the GHQ that honoring their war dead is the right and duty of citizens everywhere, and the GHQ decided not to destroy the Yasukuni shrine.[15] The Roman Curia reaffirmed the Instruction Pluries Instanterque in 1951.[14][15]

Post-war issues and controversies

المقالة الرئيسية: Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine

Enshrinement of war criminals

In 1956, the shrine authorities and the Ministry of Health and Welfare established a system for the government to share information with the shrine regarding deceased war veterans. By April 1959, most of Japan's war dead who were not already enshrined at Yasukuni were enshrined in this manner.[17] War criminals prosecuted by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East were initially excluded from enshrinement after the war.[17] In 1951, government authorities began considering their enshrinement, along with providing veterans' benefits to their survivors, following the signature of the Treaty of San Francisco. In 1954, government directed some local memorial shrines to accept the enshrinement of war criminals from their area.[22]

No convicted war criminals were enshrined at Yasukuni until after the parole of the last remaining incarcerated war criminals in 1958. In 1959, the Health and Welfare Ministry began forwarding information on Class B and Class C war criminals (those not involved in the planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of the war) to Yasukuni Shrine. These individuals were gradually enshrined between 1959 and 1967, often without permission from surviving family members.[17][22]

In 1966, information on fourteen men who had been charged with Class A war crimes was forwarded to the shrine. Eleven were convicted on these charges, one was convicted of Class B war crimes, and two died before completing trial. This group included the prime ministers and top generals from the war era. In 1970, the shrine passed a resolution to enshrine these individuals. The timing for their enshrinement was left to the discretion of head priest Fujimaro Tsukuba, who delayed the enshrinement through his death in March 1978.[17]

In 1978, his successor Nagayoshi Matsudaira, who rejected the Tokyo war crimes tribunal's verdicts, enshrined these fourteen convicted or alleged war criminals in a secret ceremony.[17] Emperor Shōwa, who visited the shrine as recently as 1975, was privately displeased with the action, and subsequently refused to visit the shrine.[23] In 1979, the details of the enshrinement of war criminals became public, but there was minimal controversy about the issue for several years.[17] No Emperor of Japan has visited Yasukuni since 1975.

The head-priest Junna Nakata at Honzen-ji Temple (of the Shingon sect Daigo-ha) requested the pontiff Pope Paul VI to say a Mass for the repose of the souls of all people in Yasukuni, which would include the 1,618 men condemned as Class A, B and C war criminals, and he promised to do so. In 1980, Pope John Paul II complied, and a Mass was held in St. Peter's Basilica for all the fallen civilians and fallen dead worshiped in the shrine.[15]

Statements by the shrine museum

The museum and website of the Yasukuni Shrine have made statements criticizing the United States for "convincing" the Empire of Japan to launch the attack on Pearl Harbor in order to justify the Pacific War, as well as claiming that Japan went to war with the intention of creating a "Co-Prosperity Sphere" for all Asians.[24]

Chronology

[25][26][27]See details on related controversy in Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine.

ملف:King Rama VII and his suite visit to the Yasukuni Shrine.jpg
King of Thailand, King Rama VII (Prajadhipok)'s visit to the Yasukuni Shrine, May 1931
ملف:Charles Lindbergh and his wife visit to the Yasukuni Shrine.jpg
Charles Lindbergh and Anne Morrow Lindbergh visiting Yasukuni Shrine, October 1931
ملف:French Navy personnel visit to the Yasukuni Shrine in 1930s.jpg
French Navy officers' visit to Yasukuni Shrine, May 1933
ملف:US Navy personnel visit to the Yasukuni Shrine in 1930s.jpg
The United States Navy officers' visit to Yasukuni Shrine, July 1933
ملف:German Navy personnel visit to the Yasukuni Shrine in 1930s.jpg
German Navy officers' visit to Yasukuni Shrine, March 1937
ملف:Hitlerjugend visit to Yasukuni Shrine State Shintō wreath procession kannushi 1938.jpg
Hitler Youth visit to Yasukuni Shrine, October 1938
ملف:Eirei ni kotaeru Kai members.jpg
Eirei ni kotaeru Kai (Society for Honoring the Glorious War Dead) members, August 2001
  • 1862
    • December — (Tenporeki (Tenpō calendar)): The Shinsōsai (神葬祭) (Shōkonsai (招魂祭)) for the Junnan shishi (殉難志士) was held for the first time at the Shindō Sōsaijō Reimeisha (神道葬祭場霊明社) (current Kyoto Ryozen Gokoku Shrine) at Higashiyama in Kyoto. The Saijin (deities) enshrined in the Shindō Sōsaijō Reimeisha are three kami including Kukurihime no Kami (菊理媛神).
  • 1868
    • January — (Tenpō calendar): The Boshin War started and continued until May, 1869 (Tenpō calendar)
    • April 20 — (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi (proclamation) by the Tōkaidō Senpō Sōtokufu (東海道先鋒総督府) (Tōkaidō spearhead governor) ordered the creation of a list of the war dead.
    • April 28 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the Tōkaidō Senpō Sōtokufu decided to hold Shōkonsai (招魂祭)
    • May 10 (Tenpō calendar): The Dajokan Fukoku (Proclamation or Decree by the Grand Council of State) ordered the enshrinement of the war dead at Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto (Current Kyoto Ryozen Gokoku Shrine).
    • May 28 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the Gyōseikan (行政官) (Administrative officers) ordered submission of the list of the war dead to Jingikan (神祇官) (Bureau of Rites)
    • June 2 (Tenpō calendar): The Shōkonsai was held at Nishi-no-maru ōhiroma of Edo Castle
    • July 8 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the Jingikan (神祇官) (Bureau of Rites) ordered the holding of the Shōkonsai.
    • July 10–11 (Tenpō calendar): The Shōkonsai was held at the Katō Sōrenjo (河東操錬場) in Kyoto.
  • 1869
    • July 12 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the Gunmukan ordered the establishment of Tōkyō Shōkonsha
    • July 29: The establishment of Tōkyō Shōkonsha: Emperor Meiji gave Tōkyō Shōkonsha an estate worth 5000 koku (nominally 10,000 koku) as eitai saishiryō (永代祭粢料).
    • July: The 1st Gōshisai (合祀祭) (a festival held for enshrining the war dead together) (Number of newly enshrined: 3,588)
  • 1870: The Shōkonsha horse trackrace was established as the first Japanese racetrack in the country along the outside of the shrine approach
  • 1872 May 10 (Tenpo calendar): The establishment of the honden
  • 1874
    • February: The Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
    • Emperor Meiji paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine. Since then, royal visit had been paid intermittently until 1975
    • August: The 2nd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 192)
    • November: The 3rd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 16)
  • 1875
    • February 22: Rinjisai (臨時祭, Special festival)
    • February: The 4th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 12)
    • July: 5th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1)
  • 1876 January: The 6th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1)
  • 1877
    • January: The 7th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 131)
    • February: Seinan War
    • November 14: Rinjisai
    • November: The 8th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 6,505)
  • 1878
    • July: The 9th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 160)
    • November: The 10th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 4)
  • 1879
    • June 4: The shrine was registered to Bekkaku-kanpeisya and renamed Yasukuni shrine by Dajōan.
    • June: The 11th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 266)
  • 1882
    • February: The inauguration of Yūshūkan (the oldest military museum in the world)
    • November: The 12th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 12)
  • 1883 May: The 13th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 80)
  • 1884 November: The 14th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 47)
  • 1885 May: The 15th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 6)
  • 1888
    • May: The 16th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 607)
    • November: The 17th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 18)
  • 1889
    • May: The 18th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,460)
    • November: The 19th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 61)
  • 1891 November: The 20th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,272)
  • 1893 November: The 21st Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 80)
  • 1894 August: The First Sino-Japanese War started and continued until April 1895.
  • 1895
    • November 17: Rinjitaisai (臨時大祭, Special grand festival)
    • November: The 22nd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,496)
  • 1896
    • May 6: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 23rd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 143)
    • November: The 24th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 97)
  • 1898
    • November 5: Rinjitaisai
    • November: The 25th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 11,383)
    • : The closure of the horse racetrack
  • 1899
    • May: The 26th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 340)
    • November: The 27th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshineed: 83)
  • 1900
    • May: The 28th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 35)
    • May: The Boxer Rebellion (to September)
  • 1901
    • October 31: Rinjitaisai
    • October: The establishment of the haiden
    • November: 29th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,282)
  • 1904
    • February: The Russo-Japanese War (until September 1904)
    • May: The 30th Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 31st Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 30,883)
  • 1906
    • May 2: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 32nd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 29,960)
  • 1907
    • May 3: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 33rd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 24,657)
  • 1908
    • May 5: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 34th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,943)
  • 1909
    • May 5: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 35th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 817)
  • 1910
    • May 5: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 36th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 141)
  • 1911
    • May 5: Rinjitaisai
    • May: The 37th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 631, Total: 118,499)
  • 1914 July: World War I (to October 1918)
  • 1919 May: The festival marking the 50th anniversary of the foundation
  • 1920 March: The Nikolayevsk Incident
  • 1923 September: The Great Kanto earthquake
  • 1928 May: The Jinan Incident
  • 1931 March: The Shōkonshi (招魂祠) of the Fukuba family was transferred to inside the Yasukuni precinct as Motomiya.
  • 1932: The incident between Sophia University (Jochi Daigaku) and the Yasukuni Shrine occurred, when a student refused visit to the Yasukuni shrine with the rest of the school on the ground that it was contrary to his religious convictions.[13]
  • 1936: The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (Propaganda Fide) of the Roman Curia issued the Instruction Pluries Instanterque,[14] and approved visit to the Yasukuni shrine as an expression of patriotic motive[15]
  • 1938 April: Establishment of the new Shōkonsaitei
  • 1937 July: The Second Sino-Japanese War
  • 1941 December 8: Pacific War (continued to 1945)
  • 1945
    • August 15: Emperor Shōwa gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15. In the radio address, called the Gyokuon-hōsō, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies.
    • October: The General Headquarters (GHQ) planned to burn down the Yasukuni Shrine and build a dog race course in its place.[21] However, Father Bruno Bitter of the Roman Curia and Father Patrick Byrne of Maryknoll insisted to GHQ that honoring their war dead is the right and duty of citizens everywhere, and GHQ decided not to destroy the Yasukuni shrine.[15]
    • November 19: Rinji Dai-Shōkonsai
    • December: The Shinto Directive
  • 1946
    • May 1: The 67th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 26,969)
    • September: Yasukuni Shrine was registered as a Religious Corporation of Japan.
  • 1947
    • The Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 59,337)
    • July 13: The 1st Mitama Matsuri。
  • 1951
    • April 3: The enforcement of the Religious Corporation Act
    • October 18: The first Reitaisai after WWII
    • The Roman Curia reconfirmed the Instruction Pluries Instanterque[14][15]
  • 1952 April 28: The Treaty of San Francisco came into force.
  • 1955
    • August 14: A memorial service was held for 540 suicide victims after the end of the Pacific war.
    • October 17: Rinjitaisai
  • 1956: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 112,609)
  • 1957: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 470,010)
  • 1958: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 217,536)
  • 1959
    • April 8: Rinjitaisai
    • April: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 346 dead including the class B and C war criminals who died from the death sentence execution)
    • October 4: Gōshisai (Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa and Prince Nagahisa Kitashirakawa)
    • October: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 479 dead including the class B and C war criminals who died from the death sentence execution)
    • November 5: Taisai (festival) marking the 90th anniversary of the foundation
  • 1960 August 15: Asia-Taiheiyō Sensō Junkokusya Kenshō Ireisai (アジア・太平洋戦争殉国者顕彰慰霊祭) (the memorial service to honor the war dead in the Asia-Pacific War)
  • 1964 August 15: Holding of a government-sponsored memorial ceremony for Japan's war dead (the ceremony has been held at the Budokan since 1965)
  • 1965
    • July: The establishment of Chinreisha
    • October 19: Rinjitaisai
  • 1969 October 19: The Taisai (annual main festival) marking the 100th anniversary of the foundation was held, and the Ikōshu (遺稿集) (Collection of literary remains of the war dead in the Greater East Asia War (Pacific War) was issued as a commemorative publication in 1973.
  • 1972 March 13: The establishment of Reijibo Hōanden (霊璽簿奉安殿)
  • 1975
    • August 15: Takeo Miki became the first prime minister to visit the shrine on August 15, the anniversary of the Japanese surrender. He visited in a solely private capacity and underscored this by not using an official vehicle, bringing other public officials or using his title as prime minister. Similar visits continued without arousing international protests even after the enshrinement of war criminals became publicly known.
    • November 21: Emperor Shōwa visited the Yasukuni shrine. Since then, there has not been another imperial visit to the shrine because of his displeasure over the enshrinement of convicted war criminals.[23]
    • The head-priest at the Honsenji (the Shingon sect Daigo-ha) Junna Nakata hoped that the pontiff Pope Paul VI might say a Mass for the repose of the souls of the 1,618 men condemned as Class A, B and C war criminals, and the Pope promised to say the Mass requested of him but died in 1978 without saying the Mass.[15]
  • 1976 June 22: The establishment of the Eirei ni kotaeru kai (英霊にこたえる会) (Society for Honoring the Glorious War Dead)
  • 1978 October 17: Gōshisai was held to enshrine 14 dead who died from the death penalty execution of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East or died in connection with the Tribunal. Since then, the Yasukuni shrine has used the designation Shōwa Junnansya (昭和殉難者) (Martyrs of Shōwa).
  • 1980
    • May 22: Pope John Paul II kept Pope Paul VI's word, and the Mass for the fallen civilians and fallen dead worshiped in the shrine including the unofficial 1,618 war criminals of Classes A, B and C took place in St. Peter's Basilica. Nakata attended the Mass, and presented the Pope with an eight-foot high replica of the Daigoji temple's five-story pagoda; inside the replica were memorial tablets Nakata had personally made for all 1,618 war criminals. The Pope blessed the replica pagoda but took no special interest in it.[15]
    • November 16: The establishment of Yasukuni Jinja Hōsankai (靖国神社奉賛会)
  • 1985
    • August 15: Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone paid his respects at the Yasukuni shrine, which initiated criticism by People's Republic of China for the first time. The criticism of Nakasone's action was so intense that neither he nor his several immediate successors visited the shrine again.
    • September: The 80th anniversary commemorating and honoring the Russo-Japanese War dead (日露戦争役80年慰霊顕彰祭)
  • 1989 January: Taisai (festival) marking the 120th anniversary of the foundation
  • 1996 Prime minister Ryutaro Hashimoto paid his respects at the Yasukuni shrine in order to fulfill a promise to a childhood mentor.[28]
  • 1998 December: The disbandment of Yasukuni Jinja Hōsankai (靖国神社奉賛会) and reorganization of Yasukuni Jinja Sukei Hōsankai (靖国神社崇敬奉賛会)
  • 2001
    • July 18: The Asahi Shimbun reported that the South Korean government was reclaiming spirit tablets of Korean enshrined in the Yasukuni shrine even though Yasukuni shrine houses only Symbolic Registry of Divinities (霊璽簿, Reijibo) (Former Saishinbo (祭神簿)) and spirit tablets do not exist.
    • August 13: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi, who ran against Ryutaro Hashimoto for the presidency of the Liberal Democratic Party in 2001, made a campaign pledge to visit the shrine on an annual basis regardless of the criticism it would cause, which won him support among nationalists and helped him become prime minister from 2001 to 2006. He paid his respect at the Yasukuni shrine on August 13, 2001, as a Prime Minister for the first time in 5 years since the last Hashimoto's visit. This and following Koizumi's annual visits drew extensive criticism from other East-Asian countries,[17] particularly the People's Republic of China, where the visits stoked anti-Japanese sentiment and influenced power struggles between pro-Japanese and anti-Japanese leaders within the Chinese Communist Party.[28] The Japanese government officially viewed the visits by Koizumi as private visits in an individual capacity to express respect and gratitude to the many people who lost their lives in the war, and not for the sake of war criminals or to challenge the findings of the Tokyo war crimes tribunal.[29]
  • 2002
    • April 21: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
    • July 13: The inauguration of the current Yūshūkan
  • 2003 January 14: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
  • 2004
    • January 1: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
    • September: The establishment of new "Sanshūden"
  • 2005
    • January 5: A Yasukuni shrine official said "the shrine has come under intense cyber attack, with its Web site barraged by e-mails believed to come from China since September 2004." The shrine also said on its official web site "These attacks on the Yasukuni Shrine can be taken as not only attacks on the 2.5 million souls who gave their lives for the sake of the country but are also a malicious challenge to Japan. We would like to let the people [of Japan] know the Yasukuni Shrine is under attack, which is a dirty act of terrorism that negates the order of Internet technology and society."[30]
    • June 14: About fifty relatives of the war dead of Taiwan visited the Yasukuni shrine for the ceremony to remove spirits of Taiwanese Aboriginal soldiers, but canceled it due to sound trucks (gaisensha, 街宣車) and requests from the police.
    • October 12: A brief ceremony attended by priests of the Yasukuni shrine, representatives of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and officials from the embassy of South Korea was held, and the Pukkwan Victory Monument Hokkan-Taisyō-Hi (北関大捷碑) was turned over to officials from South Korea, who returned it to its original location, which is now in North Korea.[31]
    • October 17: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
  • 2006
    • August 15: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine on August 15 (End of the Pacific War Day) for the first time in 21 years since Former Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone's visit on August 15.
    • October 12: The Motomiya and Chinreisha became open to the public (9 a.m. to 4 p.m.)
  • 2007 June 7: Former leader of Taiwan Lee Teng-Hui paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine to honor his senior brother who died as a Japanese soldier.
  • 2008 December 24: The Yasukuni official website was cracked by unknown hackers, the homepage content replaced, and the China national flag appeared once during this time.
  • 2009 August 11: The Republic of China (Taiwan) Legislative Yuan Aboriginal Atayal member Ciwas Ali and about 50 other Taiwanese Aboriginal members protested in front of the haiden of Yasukuni Shrine in an effort to remove the enshrined spirits of Taiwanese Aboriginal soldiers who died fighting for the Japanese army during Pacific War,[32][33] as well as suing Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi for visiting Yasukuni Shrine, and injured Yasukuni officers; then Japanese police officers were dispatched.
  • 2010 August 15: Longstanding official visit to the Yasukuni shrine by the ministers of state discontinued until 2012.
  • 2011
  • 2013
    • April: The Minister of Finance Tarō Asō, the National Public Safety Commission Keiji Furuya, the Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications Yoshitaka Shindo, and the Minister of State for Regulatory Reform Tomomi Inada paid their respects at the Yasukuni shrine during an annual spring festival ceremony.
    • August 15: Three cabinet members, Keiji Furuya, Yoshitaka Shindo, and Tomomi Inada, paid their respects at the Yasukuni shrine.
    • September 21: A Korean resident of Japan threatened to commit arson at Yasukuni shrine, and was arrested by Police.[38][39]
    • December 26: Prime Minister Shinzō Abe made a visit to Yasukuni Shrine and Chinreisha.[40] The visit sparked admonition from the Chinese government, which called Abe's visits to Yasukuni "an effort to glorify the Japanese militaristic history of external invasion and colonial rule ... and to challenge the outcome of World War II," as well as regret from Russia.[41][42][43] The US embassy in Tokyo said it was disappointed with Abe's actions and that his visit would exacerbate tensions with Japan's neighbours.[44] The United States urged Japan to improve strained relations with neighboring countries in the aftermath of Abe's controversial visit to Yasukuni Shrine.[45] South Korea's culture minister, Yoo Jin-ryong, criticized Abe by saying that his visit "hurts not only the ties between South Korea and Japan, but also fundamentally damages the stability and co-operation in north-east Asia."[46] In an official statement, Abe explained that he wished to "report before the souls of the war dead how my administration has worked for one year and to renew the pledge that Japan must never wage a war again. It is not my intention at all to hurt the feelings of the Chinese and Korean people."[47]
  • 2014
    • January: A poll by the conservative-leaning Sankei Shimbun found that only 38.1% of respondents approved of the most recent visit by Abe, while 53% disapproved, a majority of whom cited harm to Japan's foreign relations as their reason. At the same time, 67.7% of respondents said they were not personally convinced by Chinese and Korean criticism of the visit.[48] However, another poll in 2015 by Genron NPO found that 15.7% of respondents disapproved of visits in general by Prime Ministers while 66% of respondents saw no problem, particularly if they were done in private (which was a decrease from 68.2% the year before).[49]
    • April: Canadian singer Justin Bieber paid a visit to the war shrine. After coming under heavy criticism from Chinese and South Korean fans, he apologized for posting a photo of his visit, claiming to have not known about the background surrounding the shrine.[50][51]
    • August 15: Three cabinet ministers visited the shrine to mark the 69th anniversary of the surrender of Japan in World War II. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe however chose not to.[52]
  • 2015
    • November 23: An explosion at a public toilet in the war shrine caused some damage to the ceiling and wall of the bathroom near the south gate of the shrine[53]
  • 2018
    • Chinese actor Zhang Zhehan took photos of himself posing in front of cherry blossom trees back in March 2018. He followed the Sakura route suggested by state sponsored news agencies such as People's Network.[54] In August 2021, the background architecture of one of the photos was recognized as Saikan (office area of the Shrine). After the photos became viral and sparked outrage in China, Zhang issued an apology. However, multiple media agencies and majority of people still accused him of betrayal to the national dignity.[55] The photos resulted in 22 brands terminating their endorsements of Zhang. His upcoming films and television shows also terminated all of their associations with him. The China Association of Performing Arts (CAPA) then called for a total entertainment ban on Zhang. Several Chinese music and streaming platforms removed his music, television and film works. Chinese social media platforms Sina Weibo and TikTok deleted his studio and personal accounts.[56][57][58]
    • October 31: Chief priest resigns following his criticism against Emperor.[59]


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الآلهة المدفونة

يوجد أكثر من 2.466.000 كامي (إله) مـُكرَّم مدرج حالياً في السجل الرمزي للمعبد في ياسوكوني. هذه القائمة تشمل جنود، بالإضافة لسيدات وطلاب تواجدوا أثناء عمليات الانقاذ في المعارك أو عملوا في مصانع لصالح الجهود الحربية.[3] لا يقتصر التكريم على الأشخاص من أصل ياباني. حالياً، ضريح ياسوكوني يكرم 27.863 تايواني و21.181 كوري بدون التشاور مع عائلاتهم وفي بعض الأحين ضد الرغبة المعلنة لأفراد العائلة.[60] يوجد عدد من الكامي المكرمون قد توفوا في تشينريشا.[61]

الفئات المؤهلة

كقاعدة عامة، التكريم مقصور على الشخصيات العسكرية التي قتل أثناء خدمتها لليابان في النزاع المسلحة. المدنيون المقتولون أثناء الحرب ليسوا ضمن المكرمين، بغض النظر عن بعض الاستثناءات. يجب على المتوفى أن يندرج تحت واحد من التصنيفات التالية:

العسكريون، والمدنيون الذين خدموا من أجل العسكرية، وهم:

    • قتل في المعركة، أو توفى متأثراً بجراحه أو مرضه أو لإصابته أثناء عمله خارج جزر الوطن (وداخل جزر الوطن بعد سبتمبر 1931)
    • المفقودون أو المفترض وفاتهم متأثرون بجراحهم أو بأمراض أصابتهم أثناء الخدمة
    • المتوفي نتيجة نتيجة لمحاكمات جرائم الحرب والتي صدقت عليها معاهدة سان فرانسيسكو
  2. المدنيون الذين شاركوا في القتال مع الجيش وتوفوا متأثرون بجراحهم أو مرضهم (ويشمل المقيمون في أوكيناوا)
  3. المدنيون الذين توفوا، أو اعتبروا متوفون، في مخيمات العمل السوڤيتية أثناء وبعد الحرب
  4. المدنيون الذين حشدوا رسمياً أو تطوعوا (مثل عمال المصانع، الطلبة المحتشدون، ممرضات الصليب الأحمر الياباني والمتطوعون المناهضون للغارات الجوية) الذين قتلوا أثناء أداء واجبهم
  5. الطاقم الذي قتل على متن سفن البحرية التجارية
  6. الطاقم الذين قُتل بسب غرق سفن التبادل (مثل أوا مارو)
  7. تلاميذ مدرسة اوكيناو الذين تم اجلاؤهم وقُتلو (مثل غرق تسوشيما مارو)
  8. المسؤلون في الهيئات الادارية في محافظة كارافوتو، Kwantung Leased Territory، الحاكم العام لكوريا والحاكم العام لتايوان

بالرغم من الأسماء الجديدة للجنود المتقولين أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية والتي تضاف لقائمة الضريح كل عام، لا يوجد شخص تم قتله بسبب نزاعات بعد توقيع اليابان معاهدة سان فرانسيسكو التي أنهت رسمياً الحرب العالمية الثانية عام 1951، مؤهلاً للتكريم بالضريح. لذلك، فالضريح لا يضم أعضاء قوات الدفاع الذاتي اليابانية والتي تأسست بعد توقيع المعاهدة.

النزاعات

شاركت اليابان في عشر نزاعات منذ حرب بوشين في 1869. الجدول التالي يسرد زمنياً عدد الأشخاص المكرمين ككامي في الضريح (في 17 أكتوبر 2004) في كل واحد من هذه النزاعات.

النزاع الوصف السنة # المدفونون ملاحظات
حرب بوشين واستعادة مـِيْ‌جي الحرب الأهلية اليابانية 1867–1869 7,751 [62]
تمرد ساتسوما الحرب الأهلية اليابانية 1877 6,971 [62]
تجريدة تايوان 1874 نزاع مع شعب پاي‌يوان (السكان الأصليون التايوانيون) 1874 1,130 [62]
حادثة إيمو نزاع مع جيش الجوس‌يون المتمرد على كوريا 1882 أكثر من 10 [63][64]
الحرب الصينية اليابانية الأولى نزاع مع صين تشينگ على كوريا 1894–95 13,619 [62]
انتفاضة الملاكمين غزو تحالف الأمم الثمانية للصين 1901 1,256 [62]
الحرب الروسية اليابانية نزاع مع الامبراطورية الروسية على كوريا ومنشوريا 1904–05 88,429 [62]
الحرب العالمية الأولى نزاع مع الامبراطورية الألمانية (القوى المركزية) على البحر المتوسط وشان‌دونگ، محافظة صينية 1914–1918 4,850 [62]
معركة شينگ‌شانلي نزاع مع جيش الاستقلال الكوري على كوريا 1920 11 [62]
حادثة جي‌نان نزاع مع الصين (كومن‌تانگ) على جينان، مدينة تحت المقاطعة صينية. 1928 185 [62]
حادثة موكدن أدت إلى احتلال منشوريا 1931–1937 17,176 [62][65]
الحرب الصينية اليابانية الثانية نزاع مع الصين 1937–1941 191,250 [62][65]
الحرب العالمية الثانية مسرح الهادي
(including حرب الهند الصينية[66]) 		نزاع مع القوات المتحالفة والاشتراك في مسرح الهادي (تشمل مجرمو حرب من الدرجة أ، ب، ج، وسخرة اليابانيين في الاتحاد السوڤيتي)
(نزاع مع فرنسا[66]) 		1941–1945
1945- 		2,133,915 [62][65]
  الإجمالي 2,466,532 [62]

لا يضم ضريح ياسوكوني قوات شوگونية توكوگاوا (خاصة من نطاق أيزو) أو القوات المتمردة التي توفيت أثناء حرب بوشية أو تمرد ساتسوما لأنهم يعتبروا أعداء للامبرطور. هم مكرمون في تشينريشا.[61] هذا الإقصاء، والذي يشمل أسلاف كبير الكهنة السابق توشياكي نابو (2004–2009)، الذي يحظى بحنق عميق في المنطقتين.[بحاجة لمصدر]

حرم الضريح

التماثيل التذكارية
نصب تذكاري لتضحية المرأة
تمثال تذكاري لطياري كامي‌كازى
تمثال تذكاري للكلب
تمثال تذكاري للحصان
تمثال تذكاري للحمام الزاجل


التماثيل التذكارية
Irei no Izumi Sculpture
نصب تذكاري للقاضي رادا بينود پال


الجدال

المقالة الرئيسية: الجدالات المحيطة بضريح ياسوكوني

نظرً لتكريم مجرمي حرب أدانتهم المحكمة العسكرية الدولية للشرق الأقصى والنهج القومي لمتحف الحرب، تعرض ضريح ياسوكوني والحكومة اليابانية لنقد من بعض بلدان شرق آسيا.

التنظيم

Yasukuni shrine is an individual religious corporation and does not belong to the Association of Shinto Shrines.[67] Yasukuni shrine has departments listed below. The Gūji (宮司) controls the overall system, and the Gon-gūji (権宮司) assists the Gūji.[26]

  • Saimu-bu (祭務部)
    • Sōgi-ka (祭儀課)
    • Chōsa-ka|調査課}}
  • Sōmu-bu (総務部)
    • Sōmu-ka (総務課)
    • Jinji-ka (人事課)
    • Kanri-ka (管理課)
    • Kōhō-ka (広報課)
  • Sentoku-bu (宣徳部)
    • Sūkeihōsan-ka (崇敬奉賛課)
    • Sentoku-ka (宣徳課)
  • Keiri-bu (経理部)
    • Keiri-ka (経理課)
    • Jigyō-ka (事業課)
  • Yūshūkan-bu (遊就館部)
    • Shiryō-ka (史料課)
    • Tenji-ka (展示課)
    • Bunko-shitu (文庫室)
  • Shamu Jisshusei (社務実習生)


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اشارات ثقافية إلى ضريح ياسوكوني

أوراق نقدية

  • 1942–1948: Empire of Japan 50 sen banknote

طوابع بريدية

  • Japanese 17 sen stamp (1943)
  • Japanese 27 sen stamp (1945)
  • Japanese 1 yen stamp (1946)

أختام بريدية بديعة

  • Kudan Post Office (九段郵便局)
  • Kōjimachi Post Office (麹町郵便局)

الموسيقى الشعبية

  • Kudan no haha (九段の母, Mother at Kudan) (Singers: Masaru Shio, Yuriko Futaba etc.)
  • Tokyō dayo Okkasan (東京だョおっ母さん, We're in Tokyo, Ma) (Singer: Chiyoko Shimakura)

المسرحيات

  • Dōki no sakura (同期の桜) (The cherry blossoms of a same period)

الكتب

  • 1881: Buko Nenpyo zokuhen (武江年表続編) (The chronology of Bukō (Edo, Musashi Province), 2nd volume) (Author:Gesshin Saitō (Yukinari Saitō) (斎藤月岑 (斎藤幸成)))
  • 1863–1872: Hirosawa Saneomi Nikki (廣澤真臣日記) (The diary of Masaomi Hirosawa) (Author: Masaomi Hirosawa (広沢真臣))
  • 1868–1877: Kido Takayoshi Nikki (木戸孝允日記) (The diary of Kido Takayoshi) (Author: Kido Takayoshi)
  • 1905: Yasukuni Jinjashi (靖国神社誌) (History of Yasukuni Shrine) (Author: Iwao Yamauchi (山内岩雄))
  • 1905–1907: Wagahai wa Neko de Aru (吾輩は猫である) (I Am a Cat) (Author: Natsume Sōseki)
  • 1911: Yasukuni Jinjashi (靖国神社誌) (History of Yasukuni Shrine) (Authors: Terauchi Masatake, 斎藤実賀, Momoki Kamo (加茂百樹))
  • 1917: Tokyo no sanjunen (東京の三十年) (My thirty years in Tokyo) (Author:Katai Tayama)

الملصقات

  • 1871: Shōkonsha keidai Furansu ōkyokuba no zu (招魂社境内 フランス大曲馬図) (Big French circus on the grounds of Shokonsha (Yasukuni) shrine)
  • Japanese 17 sen (1943), 27 sen (1945) and 1 yen (1946) stamps which depict the Yasukuni Shrine's Torii and honden)

    Japanese 17 sen (1943), 27 sen (1945) and 1 yen (1946) stamps which depict the Yasukuni Shrine's Torii and honden)

  • Japanese 7 sen stamp depicting Yasukuni Shrine's honden

    Japanese 7 sen stamp depicting Yasukuni Shrine's honden

  • Empire of Japan 50 sen banknote with Yasukuni Shrine

    Empire of Japan 50 sen banknote with Yasukuni Shrine

  • French circus on the grounds of Shokonsha shrine, 1871

    French circus on the grounds of Shokonsha shrine, 1871

السيوف

In 1933, Minister of War Sadao Araki founded the Nihon-tō Tanrenkai (日本刀鍛錬会, Japanese Sword Forging Association) in the grounds of the shrine to preserve old forging methods and promote Japan's samurai traditions, as well as to meet the huge demand for guntō (military swords) for officers.[بحاجة لمصدر] About 8,100 "Yasukuni swords" were manufactured in the grounds of the Yasukuni Shrine between 1933 and 1945.[بحاجة لمصدر]

  • Yasukuni (Kudan) sword (inscription: Yasuhiro)

    Yasukuni (Kudan) sword (inscription: Yasuhiro)

  • The center of Yasukuni (Kudan) sword (inscription: Yasuhiro)

    The center of Yasukuni (Kudan) sword (inscription: Yasuhiro)

انظر أيضاً

الهامش

  1. ^ "History". Retrieved 2008-03-23.
  2. ^ "History". Yasukuni.or.jp. Retrieved 2016-03-03.
  3. ^ أ ب "Deities". Yasukuni.or.jp. Retrieved 2008-04-13.
  4. ^ http://www.yasukuni.or.jp/english/about/
  5. ^ http://personal.stthomas.edu/smsletten/yasukuni/aboutyasukuni/yasukunikami.html
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المراجع

  • Nelson, John. "Social Memory as Ritual Practice: Commemorating Spirits of the Military Dead at Yasukuni Shinto Shrine". Journal of Asian Studies 62, 2 (May 2003): 445–467.
  • Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1963). Vicissitudes of Shinto. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 36655
  • Pye, Michael: "Religion and Conflict in Japan with Special Reference to Shinto and Yasukuni Shrine". Diogenes 50:3 (2003), S. 45–59.
  • Saaler, Sven: Politics, Memory and Public Opinion: The History Textbook Controversy and Japanese Society. München: Iudicium, 2005. ISBN 3-89129-849-8.
  • Shirk, Susan L. China: Fragile Superpower: How China's Internal Politics Could Derail Its Peaceful Rise. Oxford University Press, USA. 2007. ISBN 0-19-530609-0.

للاستزادة

  • Breen, John. "The Dead and the Living in the Land of Peace: A Sociology of the Yasukuni Shrine". Mortality 9, 1 (February 2004): 76–93.
  • Breen, John. Yasukuni, the War Dead and the Struggle for Japan's Past. Columbia University Press, 2008. ISBN 0-231-70042-3.
  • Nelson, John. "Social Memory as Ritual Practice: Commemorating Spirits of the Military Dead at Yasukuni Shinto Shrine". Journal of Asian Studies 62, 2 (May 2003): 445–467.
  • Sheftall, M. G. (2005). Blossoms in the Wind: Human Legacies of the Kamikaze. NAL Caliber. ISBN 0-451-21487-0.
  • Sturgeon, William Daniel (2006). Japan's Yasukuni Shrine: Place of Peace or Place of Conflict? Regional Politics of History and Memory in East Asia. Dissertation.com. ISBN 1-58112-334-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
فيما يتعلق بالجدالات
  • Ijiri, Hidenori. "Sino-Japanese Controversies since the 1972 Diplomatic Normalization". China Quarterly 124 (Dec 1990): 639–661.
  • Shibuichi, Daiki. "The Yasukuni Dispute and the Politics of Identity of Japan: Why All the Fuss?" Asian Survey 45, 2 (March–April 2005): 197–215.
  • Tamamoto, Masaru. "A Land Without Patriots: The Yasukuni Controversy and Japanese Nationalism". World Policy Journal 18, 3 (Fall 2001): 33–40.
  • Yang, Daqing. “Mirror for the Future of the History Card? Understanding the ‘History Problem’” in Chinese-Japanese Relations in the Twenty-first Century: Complementarity and Conflict, edited by Marie Söderberg, 10–31. New York: Routledge, 2002.

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