إدوارد سنودن

(تم التحويل من Edward Snowden)
إدوارد سنودن
Edward Snowden-2.jpg
صورة لسنودن أثناء لقاؤه مع گلن گرين‌والد ولورا پيوتراس، في 6 يونيو 2013.
وُلِدَ
إدوارد جوسف سنودن

21 يونيو 1983
إليزابث سيتي، كارولاينا الشمالية، الولايات المتحدة
الجنسيةأمريكي
المهنةمدير نظم
رب العملبوز ألن هاميلتون[1]
كونيا، هاواي، الولايات المتحدة.
(حتى 10 يونيو، 2013)
اللقبسرب تفاصيل عن برامج تجسس أمريكية أشهرها برنامج پريزم .
تهم جنائيةسرقة ممتلكات حكومية، تواصل غير مصرح به مع معلومات الدفاع القومي، اتصال متعمد مع معلومات مخابارتية مصنفة كشخص غير مصرح له.
National Security Agency.svg
مراقبة وكالة الأمن القومي
Boundless Informant data collection.svg
الخريطة العالمية لجمع البيانات لصالح وكالة الأمن القومي
البرامج
قبل 2001
2001

2007–

GCHQ collaboration –

توقفت–

تشريعات
Protect America Act of 2007
FISA Amendments Act of 2008 • Patriot Act
مؤسسات
FISC • لجنة المخابرات في مجلس الشيوخ
دعاوى
ACLU v. NSA • Hepting v. AT&T • Jewel v. NSA • Clapper v. Amnesty
منبهو فساد
وليام بيني • توماس دراك • مارك كلاين • إدوارد سنودن • توماس تام • روس تايس
منشورات
2001-2007 • 2013
متعلقة
Cablegate • Surveillance of reporters • Mail tracking • UN diplomatic spying • Insider Threat Program
مفاهيم
SIGINT • بيانات وصفية
تعاون
الولايات المتحدة
العيون الخمسة
كندا CSEC • المملكة المتحدة GCHQ
أستراليا DSD • نيوزيلندا GCSB
أخرى
فرنسا DGSE • ألمانيا BND
للمزيد من المعلومات: الكشف عن التجسس الأمريكي واسع النطاق 2013

إدوارد جوسف سنودن Edward Joseph Snowden (و. 21 يونيو 1983)، هو متخصص حاسوب أمريكي عمل لصالح المخابرات المركزية الأمريكية وناسا وسرب للإعلام تفاصيل معلومات بالغة السرية عن برامج تجسس أمريكية وبريطانية.[2][3]

عمل كمقاول لصالح وكالة الأمن القومي قبل الكشف للإعلام عن التفاصيل السرية لبرنامج التجسس الخاص بالوكالة.[2][3] نشر سنودن مادة مصنفة ضمن برامج سرية للغاية لوكالة الأمن القومي منها برنامج التجسس پريزم، في گارديان وواشنطن پوست في يونيو 2013. قال سنودن أن كشفه عن پريزم وأوامر المحكمة الأمريكية للتجسس المخابراتي الأجنبي المتعلقة ببيانات وكالة الأمن القومي كانت اسهام فضح ما يعتقد أنه رقابة مفرطة من قبل الحكومة على الشعب الأمريكي.[3][4][5][6][7]

في 14 يونيو 2013، اتهمه الادعاء الفدرالي الأمريكي بالتجسس وسرقة ممتلكات حكومية.[8][9][10] غادر سنودن الولايات المتحدة قبل نشر تسريباته، في البداية اتجه إلى هونگ كونگ ثم إلى روسيا، حيث حصل على لجوء مؤقت وحالياً يقيم في مكان غير معلوم.

أصبح سنودن مادة للجدل: أُطلق عليه من قبل البطل،[11][12] منبه للفساد،[13][14][15][16] منشق،[17] خائن،[18][19] and a patriot.[20][21] دافع سنودن عن تسريباته على أنها جهد "لإطلاع العامة عن الممارسات التي تتم باسمهم وفي حقهم."[7] أدان بعض المسؤولين الأمريكيين أفعاله واصفين إياها بأنها تشكل "ضرراً جسيماً" للقدرات المخابراتية الأمريكية، بينما أثنى عليها آخرون، مثل الرئيس السابق جيمي كارتر.[22][23] في غضون ذلك، تجددت النقاشات داخل وخارج الولايات المتحدة حول المراقبة الشاملة، سرية الحكومة، والتوازن بين الأمن القومي وخصوصية المعلومات.


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خلفية

سنودن على غلاف جريدة گارديان، 10 يونيو 2013.

العائلة والتعليم

وُلد إدوارد سنودن في إليزابث سيتي، كارولاينا الشمالية.[24] والده، وهو مواطن من پنسلڤانيا، كان ضابطاً في حرس السواحل الأمريكي؛[25] ووالدته، وهي مواطنة من بالتيمور، ماريلاند، تعمل موظفة في محكمة المقاطعة الأمريكية في ماريلاند.[26][24] كانت شقيقته الكبرى محامية.[24]

في عام 1999، انتقل سنودن وعائلته إلى إليكوت سيتي، ماريلاند، حيث درس الحاسوب في أن أرنودل كوميونيتي كولدج[24] ليحصل على الدرجات المطلوبة للالتحاق بدبلومة المدرسة الثانية، لكنه لم ينهي دراسته هانك.[27] بعدها التحق ببرنامج التطوير التعليمي العام.[7][28]

قبل أن يغادر إلى هونگ كونگ، أقام في وياپاهو، اوهاو، هاواي، مع صديقته.[29]

العمل

في 7 مايو 2004، التحق سنودن بالجيش الأمريكي أملاً في أن ينضم بعدها للقوات الخاصة.[30] قال سنودن، "أردت أن أقاتل في حرب العراق لأني شعرت كما لو أنه يجب علي كإنسان مساعدة الناس على التحرر من القهر "[7] لكنه خرج من الخدمة بعد أشهر قليلة في 28 سبتمبر بعد إصابته بكسور في ساقيه في حادث تدريب. بعدها عمل في وكالة الأمن القومي كحارس أمن لمرفق بجامعة ماريلاند،[31] قبل الانضمام لوكالة المخابرات المركزية للعمل في أمن تكنولوجيا المعلومات.[32]

في 2007، أرسلته المخابرات المركزية بغطاء دبلوماسي إلى جنيڤ، سويسرا كمسئول عن أمن شبكة الحاسوب.[33] ترك سنودن الوكالة في 2009 للعمل مع مقاول خاص داخل مرفق وكالة الأمن القومي في قاعدة عسكرية أمريكية باليابان.[7]

عند مغادرته الولايات المتحدة في مايو 2013، كان يعمل مع مقاول الدفاع بوز ألن هاميلتون لأقل من ثلاثة شهور كمدير نظم داخل وكالة الأمن القومي في هاواي.[34][35] وصف حياته بأنها "مريحة للغاية،" يتلقى راتب شهري يقارب 200.000 دولار"،[7] بالرغم من أن صاحب العمل قد شكك في هذه المزاعم، حيث يقول أنه قام بطرده في 10 يونيو "لانتهاكاته للمبادئ الأخلاقية وسياسة الشركة."[36][37] گلن گرينوالد، صحفي كان قد أجرى لقاء مع سنودن وقام بنشر تسريباته، كتب فيما بعد، “It’s possible Booz Allen is using a pro-rated figure, or it’s possible Snowden talked about his salary at his prior NSA job at Dell.”[38][39]

آراؤه السياسية

وصفت گارديان سنودن أنه شديد المبالغة بقيمة القرصنة؛ أظهر حاسوبه المحمول ملصقات تدعم منظمات حرية الإنترنت ومنها مؤسسة الجبهة الإلكترونية وتور پروجيكت.[7] لسنودن بصمة رقمية صغيرة. بعد 24 ساعة من كشفه عن شخصيته، حسب الصحيفة، كانت بصمته تتضمن "أدق التفاصيل عن عائلته" وأنه لم يكن هناك صر جديدة، ولا يوجد تحديث لحالات فيسبوك وتويتور "إذا ما كان سندون كان بحاجة لأي منها" وأنه لم يكن هناك أي لقاءات مع زملاءه من المدرسة الثانوية.[40]

في الانتخابات الرئاسية 2008، صوت سنودن لمرشحي الحزب الثالث. قال سنودن أنه "آمن بوعود اوباما،" وأنه حتى الآن "مستمر باتباع سياسات الرئيس السابق."[41] في انتخابات 2012، أشارت سجلات التبرع السياسية أنه ساهم في الحملة الانتخابية الرئيسية لرون پول.[42]

في 17 يونيو، 2013، تحدث والد سنودن في لقاء على فوكس تي ڤي، معبراً عن قلقه حول التضليل الإعلامي فيما يخص ابنه. وصف ابنه بأنه "شاب حساس، مهتم.. إنه فقط مفكر عميق التفكير."[43] في تقارير نشرت في 2013، لاحظ المذيعون أن حاسوب سنودن المحمول يظهر عليه لاصقات إعلانية تدعم منظمات حرية الإنترنت ومنها مؤسسة الجبهة الإلكترونية ومشروع تور.[7] يعتبر سنودن نفسه "لا خائن ولا بطل. أنا أمريكي."[44]

التصريحات الإعلامية

وثيقة سرية للغاية سربها إدوارد سنودن لگارديان، وكانت سيفرج عنها في 12 أبريل 2038.

أول الأمر قام سنودن بالاتصال مع مخرجة الأفلام الوثائقية لورا پويتراس في يناير 2013.[45] حسب پويتراس، اختار سنودن الاتصال بها بعد قرارته تقريرها حول وليم بيني، منب فساد عن وكالة الأمن القومي، المنشور في نيويورك تايمز. وهي عضو في مؤسسة حرية الإعلام، مع الصحفي گلن گرينوالد ومنبه الفساد دانيل إلسبرگ.[46] گرينوالد، أبلغ گارديان، بمزاعمه حول عمله مع سنودن منذ فبراير[47] وكتب بارتون گلمان لواشنطن پوست، قائلاً أن أول اتصال مباشر كان في 16 مايو.[48] ومع ذلك، فيدعي گلمان أن گرينوالد كان على علاقة بالأمر فقد بعدما رفضت پوست أن تضمن نشر جميع الوثائق في غضون 72 ساعة.[48]

يقوم سنودن باتصالاته باستخدام بريد معمم[45] مستخدماً اسم مستعار "ڤـِراكس"، ويعني من يقول الحقيقة، باللاتينية. He asked not to be quoted at length for fear of identification by semantic analysis.[48]

حسب گلمان، قبل أول لقاء لهما شخصياً، كتب سنودن، "I understand that I will be made to suffer for my actions, and that the return of this information to the public marks my end."[48] كذلك أخبر سندون گلمان أنه حتى تنشر المقالات، فسيكون الصحفيون العاملون معه أيضاً تحت تهديد المخابرات الأمريكية، الذين كما قال سنودن "will most certainly kill you if they think you are the single point of failure that could stop this disclosure and make them the sole owner of this information."[48]

The Washington Post reported that the motive behind the disclosure was to expose the "surveillance state" that he felt the United States was becoming.[2]

“ I don't want to live in a society that does these sort of things … I do not want to live in a world where everything I do and say is recorded. ”

—Edward Snowden, speaking to The Guardian in June 2013[41]

In May 2013, Snowden was permitted temporary leave from his position at the NSA in Hawaii, on the pretext of receiving treatment for his epilepsy.[7] On May 20, 2013, Snowden flew to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China,[49][50] where he was staying when the initial articles about the NSA that he had leaked were published.[49][51] Among other specifics, Snowden divulged the existence and functions of several classified US surveillance programs and their scope, including notably PRISM, NSA call database, Boundless Informant. He also revealed details of Tempora, a British black-ops surveillance program run by the NSA's British partner, GCHQ. In July 2013, Greenwald stated that Snowden had additional sensitive information about the NSA that he has chosen not to make public, including "very sensitive, detailed blueprints of how the NSA does what they do".[52]

الدوافع

Snowden's identity was made public by The Guardian at his request[47] on June 9, 2013. He explained: "I have no intention of hiding who I am because I know I have done nothing wrong."[7] He added that by revealing his identity he hoped to protect his colleagues from being subjected to a hunt to determine who had been responsible for the leaks.[53] Snowden explained his actions saying: "I don't want to live in a society that does these sort of things [surveillance on its citizens]... I do not want to live in a world where everything I do and say is recorded... My sole motive is to inform the public as to that which is done in their name and that which is done against them."[54] When Snowden met with representatives of human rights organizations on July 12, he said:

The 4th and 5th Amendments to the Constitution of my country, Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and numerous statutes and treaties forbid such systems of massive, pervasive surveillance. While the US Constitution marks these programs as illegal, my government argues that secret court rulings, which the world is not permitted to see, somehow legitimize an illegal affair....

I believe in the principle declared at Nuremberg in 1945: "Individuals have international duties which transcend the national obligations of obedience. Therefore individual citizens have the duty to violate domestic laws to prevent crimes against peace and humanity from occurring."[55]


التنبيه عن التصنت على الكابلات البحرية

مخطط يوضح كيفية التجسس على البيانات في كابلات الاتصالات البحرية من قبل السلطات المراقبة.

إدوارد سنودن، مقاول لصالح وكالة الأمن القومي قبل الكشف للإعلام عن التفاصيل السرية لبرنامج التجسس الخاص بالوكالة.[2][3]، قال في تسريباته الأخيرة أن شركات التكنولوجيا مثل گوگل وميكروسوفت ليست فقط تتعاون بطيب خاطر مع الأجهزة الأمنية - لكنها تساعد نفسها أيضاً، حيث تقوم بالتنصت على الإنترنت، والولوج لكميات هائلة من البيانات من الكابلات البحرية. [56]

يوضح تقرير نشر في أتلانتيك كيف يتجسس البريطانيون باستخدام أكثر من برنامجين صوتيتين أسماء "گلوبال تلكومز إكسپلوريشن" و"ماسترينگ ذه إنترنت". يقال أن هذه البرامج تشبه برنامج پريزم، ويتم تشغيلهم تحت عملية كبرى تسمى "مشروع تمپورا". حسب الوثائق المسربة من سنودن، عن طريق تمپورا يتم تجميع أكثر من 21 مليون گيگابايت من البيانات يومياً، والتي يم تجميعها وتحليلها في جهة واحدة.

وصفت الأتلانتيك كيف أن تلك البيانات يتم تقاسمها بين مقرات الاتصالات الحكومية البريطانية وناسا، حيث يعمل أكثر من 550 محلل بدوام كامل على تصنيفها وتحليلها. في هذه الحالة، فإن الخطر على خصوصيتنا أكثر مما تجمعه ناسا عن پريزم، لأن التنصت على الكابلات البحرية يعني أن الوكالات يمكنها جمع المحتويات الدخلية للاتصالات، أكثر من مجرد حصولها على بيانات وصفية.

متحدثاً إلى محلل الأمن ياكون أپلبوم، يروي سنودن كيف أن مقرات الاتصالات الحكومية البريطانية "يمكن أن تكون أسوأ" من ناسا، لأن أنظمتها تقوم بإفراغ جميع البيانات دون تمييز، بغض النظر عن كونها تخص من أو عن محتوى تلك البيانات.

يقول سنودن "إذا كن لديك إختيار، يجب عليك ألا ترسل أي بيانات عن طريق الخطوط أو الخوادم البريطانية".

الطريقة الفعلية التي تستخدم مقرات الاتصالات الحكومية البريطانية للحصول على هذه البيانات لا يزال محل جدل، بالرغم من أن الأتلانتيك تعتقد أنه يمكن أن يكون عن طريق نوع من "المسبارات الاعتراضية" الذي يتم وضعه في مختلف المحطات الأرضية بالمملكة المتحدة. هذه "المسبارات الاعتراضية" يقال أنها أجهزة صغيرة قادرة على إلتقاط الضوء المرسل إلى كابلات الألياف البصرية، فيقوم الضوء حول "پريزم"، بنسخها، قبل السماح لها في الاستمرار في طريقها.

مقاول الحكومة الأمريكية گيلمرگلاس، من المرجح أنه قدم على الأقل بعض من تلك التكنولوجيات التي سمحت لمقرات الاتصالات الحكومية البريطانية بهذا التنصت. أفادت أڤياشن ويك أن الشركات كانت تقوم ببعض الإعتراضات لصالح مقرات الاتصالات الحكومية، لصالح الحكومة الأمريكية في 2010. علاوة على ذلك، فقد سبق وأن تفاخر گيلمرگلاس بأنه كان قادراً على مراقبة حركة الخدمات وتشمل فيسبوك وجيميل، وقال أنه باع هذه التكنولوجيا لمختلف الحكومات.


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الفرار من الولايات المتحدة

Snowden left Hawaii for Hong Kong alone on May 20, 2013. He traveled on to Moscow on Sunday, June 23, 2013, as Hong Kong authorities were deliberating the US government's request for his extradition.[57]

هونگ كونگ

Snowden explained his choice of Hong Kong thus:

NSA employees must declare their foreign travel 30 days in advance and are monitored. There was a distinct possibility I would be interdicted en route, so I had to travel with no advance booking to a country with the cultural and legal framework to allow me to work without being immediately detained. Hong Kong provided that. Iceland could be pushed harder, quicker, before the public could have a chance to make their feelings known, and I would not put that past the current US administration.[58]

Snowden said that he was predisposed "to seek asylum in a country with shared values", and that his ideal choice would be Iceland.[3][7] The International Modern Media Institute, an Icelandic freedom of speech advocacy organization, issued a statement offering Snowden legal advice and assistance in gaining asylum.[59] Iceland's ambassador to China, Kristin A. Arnadottir, pointed out that asylum could not be granted to Snowden, because Icelandic law requires that such applications be made from within the country.[60]

Snowden vowed to challenge any extradition attempt by the US government, and had reportedly approached Hong Kong human rights lawyers.[61] Snowden told the South China Morning Post that he planned to remain in Hong Kong until "asked to leave",[62] adding that his intention was to let the "courts and people of Hong Kong" decide his fate.[63]

As speculation mounted that Snowden's departure from Hong Kong was imminent, media reports emerged that the British government warned airlines that Snowden was not welcome in the United Kingdom.[64][65] On June 20 and 21, a representative of WikiLeaks said that a chartered jet had been prepared to transport Snowden to Iceland,[66] and WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange announced that he was brokering a discussion between Snowden and the Icelandic government for possible asylum.[67]

On June 23, US officials said that Snowden's US passport had been revoked.[68] On the same day, Snowden boarded the commercial Aeroflot flight SU213 to Moscow, accompanied by Sarah Harrison of WikiLeaks.[69][70] Hong Kong authorities said that Snowden had not been detained as requested by the United States, because the United States' extradition request had not fully complied with Hong Kong law,[71][72][73] and there was no legal basis to prevent Snowden from leaving.[74][75][Notes 1] On June 24, Julian Assange said that WikiLeaks had paid for Snowden's lodging in Hong Kong and his flight out.[78]

Ecuador embassy car in front of Sheremetyevo Airport in Moscow on June 23, 2013.

Snowden's passage through Hong Kong inspired a local production team to produce a low-budget five-minute film entitled Verax. The film, depicting the time Snowden spent hiding in the Mira Hotel while being unsuccessfully tracked by the CIA and China's Ministry of State Security, was uploaded to YouTube on June 25, 2013.[79][80]

روسيا

On Sunday, June 23, 2013, Snowden landed in one of Moscow's international airports, Sheremetyevo.[81] Ecuador's foreign minister, Ricardo Patiño, announced that Snowden had requested asylum in Ecuador.[82] The United States has an extradition treaty with Ecuador, but it contains a political offense exception under which Ecuador can deny extradition if it determines that Snowden is being prosecuted for political reasons.[83]

حادث طائرة مورالس

Red marked nations (Spain, France and Italy) denied permission to cross their airspace. Plane landed in Austria (yellow).

On July 1, 2013, president Evo Morales of Bolivia, who had been attending a conference of gas-exporting countries in Russia, appeared predisposed to offer asylum to Snowden during an interview with Russia Today.[84] The following day, the airplane carrying him back to Bolivia from Russia was rerouted to Austria when France, Spain and Italy[85] denied access to their airspace due to suspicions that Snowden was on board.[86] Upon landing in Vienna, the presidential plane was reportedly searched by Austrian officials, although the Bolivian Defense Minister denied a search took place, saying Morales had denied entry to his plane.[87][88] The refusals for entry into French, Spanish and Italian airspace ostensibly for "technical reasons", strongly denounced by Bolivia, Ecuador and other South American nations, were attributed to rumors perpetuated allegedly by the US that Snowden was on board.[89][90] Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, José García-Margallo, publicly stated that they were told he was on board but did not specify as to who had informed them.[91]

Austrian media later claimed the rumor originated with the US ambassador to Austria.[92] France apologized for the incident immediately.[93] The Spanish ambassador to Bolivia apologized two weeks later, citing inappropriate procedures.[94]

طلبات اللجوء

On July 1, 2013, Snowden had applied for political asylum to 20 countries.[95] A statement attributed to Snowden also contended that the U.S. administration, and specifically Vice President Joe Biden, had pressured the governments of these countries to refuse his petition for asylum.[96] Several days later, Snowden made a second batch of applications for asylum to 6 countries, but declined to name them citing prior interference by US officials.[97][98] Finland, Germany, India, Poland, Norway, Austria, Italy, and the Netherlands cited technical grounds for not considering the application, saying that applications for asylum to these countries must be made from within the countries' borders or at border stations.[95][99][100][101][102][103] Ecuador had initially offered Snowden a temporary travel document but later withdrew it:[104] on July 1, president Rafael Correa said the decision to issue the offer had been "a mistake."[105][106]

On June 25 and July 15, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that Snowden's arrival in Moscow was "a surprise" and "like an unwanted Christmas gift".[107] Putin said that Snowden remained in the transit area of Sheremetyevo, noted that he had not committed any crime on Russian soil,[108] and declared that Snowden was free to leave and should do so.[109] He also claimed that Russia's intelligence agencies neither "had worked, nor were working with" Snowden.[107][109] Putin's claims were received skeptically by some observers:[110][111] one Moscow political analyst said "Snowden will fly out of Russia when the Kremlin decides he can go"[112] and in July Yulia Latynina expressed her view that Snowden was under the "total control" of Russia's security services.[113] According to the Jamestown Foundation, an anonymous source informed them in early July that Snowden was not, in fact, residing at the airport but at a safe house controlled by Russia's Federal Security Service (FSB).[114] Correa of Ecuador said that Snowden was "under care" of Russia and could not leave Moscow.[115]

On July 1, Putin said that if Snowden wanted to be granted asylum in Russia, Snowden would have to "stop his work aimed at harming our American partners."[116][117] A spokesman for Putin subsequently said that Snowden had withdrawn his asylum application upon learning about the conditions.[95][118]

On July 12, in a meeting at Sheremetyevo Airport with representatives of human rights organizations and lawyers that the Kremlin helped organize,[119] Snowden stated that he was accepting all offers of asylum that he had already received or that he would receive in the future, noting that his Venezuela's "asylee status was now formal",[55] he also said he would request asylum in Russia until he resolved his travel problems.[120] On July 16, 2013, Russian Federal Migration Service officials confirmed that Snowden had submitted an application for temporary asylum in Russia.[121] Anatoly Kucherena, Snowden's lawyer, head of Russia's Interior ministry's public council[122] and member[123] of the public council for the FSB,[124] said Snowden had stated in the application that he faced possible torture and execution if he returned to the US.[121] According to Kucherena, Snowden had also stated that he would meet Putin's condition for granting asylum and would not further harm US interests.[121] On July 23 Kucherena said his client intended to settle in Russia.[125]

Amid media reports in early July 2013 attributed to US administration sources that Obama's one-on-one meeting with Putin, ahead of a G20 meeting in St Petersburg scheduled for September, was in doubt due to Snowden's protracted sojourn in Russia,[126][127] top US officials repeatedly made it clear to Moscow that Snowden should without delay be returned to the United States to face justice.[128][129][130] In a letter to Russian Minister of Justice Alexander Konovalov dated July 23, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder sought to eliminate the "asserted grounds for Mr. Snowden's claim that he should be treated as a refugee or granted asylum, temporary or otherwise":[9][131] he assured the Russian government that the U.S. would not seek the death penalty for Snowden irrespective of the charges he might eventually face and said Snowden would be issued a limited validity passport for returning to the U.S., and that upon his return, Snowden would benefit from legal and constitutional safeguards and not be tortured, as "torture is unlawful in the United States".[9] The same day, the Russian president's spokesman reiterated the Kremlin's position that it would "not hand anyone over"; he also noted that Putin was not personally involved in the matter as Snowden "had not made any request that would require examination by the head of state"; according to him the issue was being handled through talks between the FSB and the FBI.[132][133]

In late July 2013, Lon Snowden expressed a belief that his son would be better off staying in Russia, saying he was no longer confident his son would receive a fair trial in the United States,[134] and that Russia was probably the best place to seek asylum.[135] The elder Snowden said that the FBI had offered to fly him to Russia on their behalf but that he had declined citing a lack of assurance that he would see his son, and adding that he didn't wish to be used as "an emotional tool."[136]


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

اللجوء المؤقت في روسيا

في 1 أغسطس 2013، غادر سنودن المطار بعد السماح له باللجوء المؤقت في روسيا لسنة واحدة.[137] Snowden's attorney, Anatoly Kucherena, said the asylum could be extended indefinitely on an annual basis, and that Snowden had gone to an undisclosed location which would be kept secret for security reasons.[138]

In response to the temporary asylum, White House spokesman Jay Carney said the U.S. administration was "extremely disappointed" by the Russian government's decision and that the meeting scheduled for September between Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin was under reconsideration.[139][140] Some U.S. legislators urged the president to take a tough stand against Russia, possibly including a U.S. boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.[140][141] On August 7, the White House announced that Obama had canceled the meeting previously planned with Putin in Moscow citing lack of progress on a series of issues that included Russia's granting Snowden temporary asylum.[142][143][144] Following cancellation of the bilateral talks, Putin's foreign policy aide Yuri Ushakov said they were "disappointed" and that it was clear to him that the decision was due to the situation around Snowden, which they "had not created"; Ushakov alleged that the U.S. had been avoiding signing an extradition agreement and had "invariably" used its absence as a pretext for denying Russian extradition requests.[145][146] Richard Falk, professor emeritus of international law at Princeton University, noted that Russia was obligated by law to offer asylum.[147]

Lonnie Snowden praised Vladimir Putin for his courage in standing up to the United States by granting his son temporary asylum.[148][149][150] In June, Lon said that although Edward may have broken the law, he was "no traitor".[151] On This Week on August 11, Lon and his lawyer said that, prior to trial, it would be irresponsible to suggest that Edward had broken the law. Lon said that his son should fight espionage charges in an open court in America, "if the justice system is going to be applied correctly", instead of accepting any deal from the Obama Administration.[152] Citing the treatment of Bradley Manning, Lon Snowden had expressed doubt that his son could receive a fair trial in the US, and said that recent statements made by US officials were "absolutely irresponsible and inconsistent with our system of justice", and have served to 'poison the well' with regard to a potential jury pool.[153][154] Lonnie Snowden also revealed to This Week that Russia had granted him a visa to visit his son in the near future.[155][156] Referring to labels applied to Snowden by US politicians, his father replied, "What I would say is that my son has spoken the truth....He has sacrificed more than either the President of the United States or Peter King have ever in their political careers or their American lives."[155][157]

في 2 نوفمبر 2020 قرر سنودن طلب منحه الجنسية الروسية، مع الاحتفاظ بجواز سفره الأمريكي. وكتب عبر "تويتر": "بعد سنوات على فصلنا عن والدينا، لا نرغب أنا وزوجتي بأن نفصل عن ابننا. لذلك سنتقدم في زمن الأوبئة والحدود المغلقة هذا، بطلب للحصول على جنسية مزدوجة أمريكية وروسية". وأضاف: "سنبقى أنا و(زوجتي) ليندسي أمريكيين، نربي ابننا بكل قيم أمريكا التي نحبها، بما في ذلك حرية التعبير عن رأيه. وأنا أتطلع إلى اليوم الذي يمكنني فيه العودة إلى الولايات المتحدة، حتى يتم لم شمل الأسرة بأكملها".


ردود الفعل

الولايات المتحدة

السلطة التنفيذية

The U.S. Director of National Intelligence, James R. Clapper, described the disclosure of PRISM as "reckless".[158] The NSA formally requested that the Department of Justice launch a criminal investigation into Snowden's actions.[158] On June 14, 2013, US federal prosecutors filed a sealed complaint, made public on June 21,[8] charging Snowden with theft of government property, unauthorized communication of national defense information, and willful communication of classified intelligence to an unauthorized person; the latter two allegations are under the Espionage Act.[10]

In June 2013, the U.S. military blocked access to parts of the Guardian website related to government surveillance programs for thousands of defense personnel across the country, and to the entire Guardian website for personnel stationed in Afghanistan, the Middle East, and South Asia.[159][160] A spokesperson described the filtering as a routine "network hygiene" measure intended to mitigate unauthorized disclosures of classified information onto the Department of Defense's unclassified networks.[159]

On August 8, 2013, Lavabit, a Texas-based secure email service provider reportedly used by Snowden, abruptly announced it was shutting down operations after nearly 10 years of business.[161] The owner posted a statement online saying he would rather go out of business than "become complicit in crimes against the American people."[161] He also said that he was barred by law from disclosing what he had experienced over the preceding 6 weeks and that he was appealing the case in the U.S. Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals.[161] Multiple sources speculated that the timing of the statement suggested that Lavabit had been targeted by the U.S. government in its pursuit of information about Snowden.[161][162][163][164]

الكونگرس

Reactions to Snowden's disclosures among members of Congress were largely negative.[165] Speaker of the House John Boehner[18] and senators Dianne Feinstein[166] and Bill Nelson[167] called Snowden a traitor, and several senators and representatives joined them in calling for Snowden's arrest and prosecution.[166][168][169]

Representative Thomas Massie was one of few members of Congress to question the constitutional validity of the government surveillance programs and suggest that Snowden should be granted immunity from prosecution.[170] Senators Ted Cruz[171] and Rand Paul[172] offered tentative support for Snowden, saying they were reserving judgment on Snowden until more information about the surveillance programs and about Snowden's motives were known. Senator Paul said, "I do think when history looks at this, they are going to contrast the behavior of James Clapper, our National Intelligence Director, with Edward Snowden. Mr. Clapper lied in Congress in defiance of the law, in the name of security. Mr. Snowden told the truth in the name of privacy."[173] Paul later called Snowden a "civil disobedient", like Martin Luther King Jr., but who faced life imprisonment.[174] Representative John Lewis made comparisons between Snowden and Gandhi, saying the leaker was appealing to a "higher law".[175]

On July 25, the US Senate Committee on Appropriations unanimously adopted an amendment by Senator Lindsey Graham to the "Fiscal Year 2014 Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Bill" that would seek sanctions against any country that offers asylum to Snowden.[176][177][178]

In response to the information release by Snowden, Rep. Justin Amash (R-Mich.) and Rep. John Conyers (D-Mich.) proposed an amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act[179] to curtail the NSA gathering and storage of the personal records, but the House rejected it by a narrow margin of 205–217.[180] Amash subsequently told Fox News that Snowden was "a whistle-blower. He told us what we need to know."[181]

U.S. Senator John McCain (R-AZ) said on the August 11 edition of Fox News Sunday that Snowden had become a hero to young Americans, as he reminded them of the Jason Bourne character. McCain attributed it to generation change and a lack of confidence in the federal government. "Right now there's kind of a generational change," he said. "Young Americans do not trust this government."[182]

Gordon Humphrey, the conservative Republican senator for New Hampshire from 1979–1991, expressed support for Snowden.[183] Glenn Greenwald revealed that Humphrey, a former member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, had been in contact with Snowden via email. Humphrey told Snowden, "Provided you have not leaked information that would put in harms way any intelligence agent, I believe you have done the right thing in exposing what I regard as massive violation of the United States Constitution."[184] Humphrey cited Snowden as a "courageous whistle-blower".[16]

Tom McClintock (R-Calif) came out in favor of amnesty for Snowden, saying "I think it would be best if the American government granted him amnesty to get him back to America where he can answer questions without the threat of prosecution... We have some very good laws against sharing secrets and he broke those laws. On the other hand, he broke them for a very good reason because those laws were being used in direct contravention of our 4th Amendment rights as Americans."[185]

الرأي العام

Polls conducted by news organisations following Snowden's disclosures about government surveillance programs to the press indicated that American public opinion on Snowden's actions was divided. A Gallup poll conducted June 10–11, 2013 showed 44 percent of Americans thought it was right for Snowden to share the information with the press while 42 percent thought it was wrong.[186] A USA Today/Pew Research poll conducted June 12–16 found that 49 percent thought the release of information served the public interest while 44 percent thought it harmed it. The same poll found that 54 percent felt a criminal case should be brought against Snowden, while 38 percent thought one should not be brought,[187][188] while a Washington Post/ABC News poll conducted between the same dates as the Pew poll cited 43 percent of respondents saying Snowden ought to be charged with a crime, while 48 percent said he ought not.[189] Another poll in early July found 38 percent of Americans thought he did the wrong thing, 33 percent said he did the right thing, and 29 percent were unsure.[190] A WSJ/NBC poll conducted July 17–21 found that 11% of Americans viewed Snowden positively while 34% had a negative view.[191] A Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll conducted June 28 – July 8 found that in the wake of Snowden's disclosures, more Americans said that government goes too far in restricting civil liberties as part of the war on terrorism (45 percent) than said that government does not go far enough to adequately protect the country (40 percent).[192] That finding was evidence of a massive swing in public opinion since an earlier Quinnipiac poll, conducted in 2010, when only 25 percent of respondents had said government goes too far in restricting civil liberties while 63 percent had said government does not go far enough. The same poll found that 55 percent of Americans regarded Snowden as a whistleblower while 34 percent saw him as a traitor.[192] Quinnipiac showed that a majority of Americans, by a wide margin, still regarded Snowden as a whistleblower rather than a traitor when it repeated the poll July 31 – August 1.[193]

Glenn Greenwald, the journalist who received the leaked documents, praised Snowden for having done a service by revealing the surveillance on the American public.[194][195] John Cassidy, also of The New Yorker, called Snowden "a hero", and said that "in revealing the colossal scale of the US government's eavesdropping on Americans and other people around the world, [Snowden] has performed a great public service that more than outweighs any breach of trust he may have committed."[196] CNN columnist Douglas Rushkoff also called Snowden's leak an act of heroism.[197] Amy Davidson, writing in The New Yorker, was thankful for the "overdue" conversation on privacy and the limits of domestic surveillance.[198]

American political commentators and public figures such as Noam Chomsky,[199] Chris Hedges,[200] Michael Moore,[201] Cornel West,[202] Glenn Beck,[201] Matt Drudge,[203] Alex Jones,[204] Andrew Napolitano,[205] Oliver Stone,[206] Michael Savage,[207] and Stephen Walt[208] praised Snowden for exposing secret government surveillance.

Other commentators were more critical of Snowden's methods and motivations.[209] Jeffrey Toobin, for example, denounced Snowden as "a grandiose narcissist who deserves to be in prison."[210] Writing in the The New Yorker, Toobin argued:

Any government employee or contractor is warned repeatedly that the unauthorized disclosure of classified information is a crime.... These were legally authorized programs; in the case of Verizon Business’s phone records, Snowden certainly knew this, because he leaked the very court order that approved the continuation of the project. So he wasn’t blowing the whistle on anything illegal; he was exposing something that failed to meet his own standards of propriety. The question, of course, is whether the government can function when all of its employees (and contractors) can take it upon themselves to sabotage the programs they don’t like. That’s what Snowden has done.[210]

Stewart Baker, a former NSA general counsel in the early 1990s, said at a July 18, 2013 hearing, "I am afraid that hyped and distorted press reports orchestrated by Edward Snowden and his allies may cause us – or other nations – to construct new restraints on our intelligence gathering, restraints that will leave us vulnerable to another security disaster."[211] Former CIA and NSA chief General Michael Hayden welcomed the debate about the balance between privacy and security that the leaks have provoked. He said "I am convinced the more the American people know exactly what it is we are doing in this balance between privacy and security, the more they know the more comfortable they will feel."[212][213] Some former U.S. intelligence officials speculated that Chinese or Russian intelligence agents might have gleaned additional classified material from Snowden,[214][215][216] a view shared by some former Russian agents.[217] Snowden, however, told Greenwald in July that "I never gave any information to either government, and they never took anything from my laptops."[218]

Former US President Jimmy Carter said: "He's obviously violated the laws of America, for which he's responsible, but I think the invasion of human rights and American privacy has gone too far ... I think that the secrecy that has been surrounding this invasion of privacy has been excessive, so I think that the bringing of it to the public notice has probably been, in the long term, beneficial."[219]

إلتماء العفو عن سنودن على الموقع الرسمي للبيت الأبيض.


The editors of Bloomberg News argued that, while the government ought to prosecute Snowden, the media's focus on Snowden took attention away from issues of U.S. government surveillance, the interpretations of the Patriot Act, and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) court actions, all of which are "what really matters in all this."[220] Greenwald accused the media in the U.S. of focusing on Edward Snowden instead of on wrongdoing by Clapper and other U.S. officials.[221] In an op-ed, author Alex Berenson argued that the federal government should have flown a representative to Hong Kong to ask Snowden to give testimony in front of the U.S. Congress and offer him a fair criminal trial, with a view to preventing further unintended disclosures of classified information to other countries.[222]

A We the People petition launched on whitehouse.gov on June 9 to seek "a full, free, and absolute pardon for any crimes [Snowden] has committed or may have committed related to blowing the whistle on secret NSA surveillance programs" attained 100,000 signatures within two weeks.[223]

اوروپا

الحكومات

British Foreign Minister William Hague admitted that Britain's GCHQ was also spying and collaborating with the NSA, and defended the two agencies' actions as "indispensable."[224][225][226] Meanwhile, UK Defence officials issued a confidential DA-Notice to British media asking for restraint in running further stories related to surveillance leaks including the PRISM programme and the British involvement therein.[227]

European governments reacted angrily, with German and French leaders Angela Merkel and François Hollande branding the spying as 'unacceptable' and insisting the NSA stop immediately,[226][228][229][230] while the European Union Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding sent Washington an official list of questions and demanded an explanation.[231][232] European diplomats feared that upcoming EU–US trade talks would be overshadowed by the disclosures.[230][232][233]

Documents from Snowden show that cooperation between Berlin and Washington in the area of digital surveillance and defense intensified considerably during time of Chancellor Merkel. The Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany, is directly subordinated to the Chancellor's Office. Although Merkel denied knowing about surveillance, Germans take the claims seriously. According to Hansjörg Geiger, former head of the BND, findings/claims are Orwellian and mutual political and economic espionage would be explicitly forbidden.[234]

الرأي العام

مظاهرات ضد پريزم في برلين، ألمانيا.

An opinion poll carried out by Emnid at the end of June revealed that 50% of Germans consider Snowden a hero, and 35% would hide him in their homes.[235]

Jürgen Trittin a German Green politician wrote in The Guardian Europe on July 2, 2013 "Edward Snowden has done us all a great service. The man who revealed that our US and UK allies are spying on us ought to be given refuge by an EU country. [...] If ever a case demonstrated why we need the protection of whistleblowers, this is it."[236]

المنظمات غير الحكومية

Navi Pillay, the United Nations' High Commissioner for Human Rights, said: "Without prejudging the validity of any asylum claim by Snowden, I appeal to all States to respect the internationally guaranteed right to seek asylum."[237]

After Amnesty International met Edward Snowden in Moscow in mid July 2013, the organization said:

"What he has disclosed is patently in the public interest and as a whistleblower his actions were justified. He has exposed unlawful sweeping surveillance programmes that unquestionably interfere with an individual’s right to privacy. States that attempt to stop a person from revealing such unlawful behaviour are flouting international law. Freedom of expression is a fundamental right."[238]

Widney Brown, Senior Director of Amnesty, feared that Snowden would be at "great risk" of human rights violations if forcibly transferred to the United States,[239] and urged no country to return Snowden to the US. Michael Bochenek, Director of Law and Policy at Amnesty International deplored the US pressure on governments to block Snowden's asylum attempts, saying "It is his unassailable right, enshrined in international law".[240]

Human Rights Watch said that if Snowden were able to raise the issue of NSA mass surveillance without facing espionage charges, he would not have left the United States in the first place.[241] Human Rights Watch writes that any country where Snowden seeks asylum should consider his claim fairly and protect his rights under international law, which recognizes that revealing official secrets is sometimes justified in the public interest.[242]

Index on Censorship condemned the U.S. government for its "mass surveillance of citizens’ private communications" and urged all government officials to uphold the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. A statement released by Index on Censorship said: "Whistleblowers such as Edward Snowden — as well as journalists reporting on the Prism scandal, who have come under fire — should be protected under the first amendment, not criminalised."[243]

Navi Pillay, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, said: "Snowden's case has shown the need to protect persons disclosing information on matters that have implications for human rights, as well as the importance of ensuring respect for the right to privacy".[237]

Transparency International, International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms and Vereinigung Deutscher Wissenschaftler awarded Snowden the German Whistleblowerpreis 2013.[244] Humanist Union awarded him the Fritz Bauer Prize 2013.[245]

الصين وهونگ كونگ

The South China Morning Post published a poll of Hong Kong residents conducted while Snowden was still in Hong Kong that showed that half of the 509 respondents believed the Chinese government should not surrender Snowden to the United States if Washington raises such a request; 33 percent of those polled think of Snowden as a hero, 12.8 percent described him as a traitor, 23 percent described him as "something in between."[246]

مظاهرة أمام السفارة الأمريكية في هونگ كونگ في 15 يونيو تضامناً مع سنودن.

Referring to Snowden's presence in the territory, Hong Kong chief executive CY Leung assured that the government would "handle the case of Mr Snowden in accordance with the laws and established procedures of Hong Kong [and] follow up on any incidents related to the privacy or other rights of the institutions or people in Hong Kong being violated."[247] Pan-democrat legislators Gary Fan and Claudia Mo said that the perceived U.S. prosecution against Snowden will set "a dangerous precedent and will likely be used to justify similar actions" by authoritarian governments.[248] During Snowden's stay, the two main political groups, the pan-democrats and Pro-Beijing camp, found rare agreement to support Snowden.[249][250] The DAB[مطلوب توضيح] even organised a separate march to Government headquarters for Snowden.

The People's Daily and the Global Times editorials of June 19 stated respectively that the central Chinese government was unwilling to be involved in a "mess" caused by others, and that the Hong Kong government should follow the public opinion and not concern itself with Sino-US relations.[251] A Tsinghua University communications studies specialist, Liu Jianming, interpreted that the two articles as suggesting that the PRC[مطلوب توضيح] government did not want further involvement in the case and that the HKSAR[مطلوب توضيح] government should handle it independently.[251]

After Snowden left Hong Kong, Chinese-language newspapers such as the Ming Pao and the Oriental Daily expressed relief that Hong Kong no longer had to shoulder the burden of the Snowden situation.[252] Mainland experts said that, although the Central Government did not want to appear to be intervening in the matter, it was inconceivable that the Hong Kong government acted independently in a matter that could have far-reaching consequences for Sino-US relations. One expert suggested that, by doing so, China had "returned the favor" for their not having accepted the asylum plea from Wang Lijun in February 2012.[253] The official Chinese Communist Party mouthpiece, the People's Daily denied the US government accusation that the PRC central government had allowed Snowden to escape, and said that Snowden helped in "tearing off Washington's sanctimonious mask."[254]

أمريكا الجنوبية

Robert Menendez, chairman of the United States foreign relations panel, warned Ecuador that accepting Snowden "would severely jeopardize" preferential trade access the United States provides to Ecuador.[255] Ecuador's President Rafael Correa responded by abdicating US trade benefits.[256] A government spokesman said that Ecuador would offer the US "economic aid of US$23 million annually, similar to what we received with the trade benefits, with the intention of providing education about human rights."[257]

Correa criticized the US media for centering its focus on Snowden and countries supporting him, instead of focusing on the global and domestic privacy issues implicated in the leaked documents.[258]

After Bolivian president Morales' plane was denied access to Spanish, French, and Italian airspace during a return flight from Moscow, the presidents of Uruguay, Argentina, Venezuela and Suriname joined Correa and a representative from Brazil, in Cochabamba, Bolivia to discuss the incident.[259] Presidents Nicolás Maduro of Venezuela and Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua offered Snowden asylum after the meeting.

الأمم المتحدة

Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said that "the Snowden case is something I consider to be misuse" and that digital communications should not be "misused in such a way as Snowden did."[260] Birgitta Jónsdóttir, an Icelandic legislator, criticized Ban for expressing a personal view while speaking in an official capacity. She said that Ban "seemed entirely unconcerned about the invasion of privacy by governments around the world, and only concerned about how whistleblowers are misusing the system."[260]

بلدان أخرى

Russia, Turkey and South Africa reacted angrily after it was revealed that their diplomats had been spied on during the 2009 G-20 London summit.[261]

منبهو الفساد

Daniel Ellsberg, the whistleblower and leaker of the top-secret Pentagon Papers in 1971, stated in an interview with CNN that he thought Snowden had done an "incalculable" service to his country and that his leaks might prevent the United States from becoming a surveillance state. He said Snowden had acted with the same sort of courage and patriotism as a soldier in battle.[262] In an op-ed the following morning, Ellsberg added that "there has not been in American history a more important leak than Edward Snowden's release of NSA material ... including the Pentagon Papers."[263] Ray McGovern, a retired CIA officer turned political activist, agreed with Ellsberg and added, "This time today I'm feeling much more hopeful for our democracy than I was feeling this time yesterday."[264]

William Binney, a whistleblower who disclosed details of the NSA's mass surveillance activities, said that Snowden had "performed a really great public service to begin with by exposing these programs and making the government in a sense publicly accountable for what they're doing." After Snowden cited a conversation with a "reliable source" about allegations that the US was "hacking into China", Binney felt he was "transitioning from whistle-blower to a traitor."[265]

Thomas Drake, former senior executive of NSA and whistleblower, said that he feels "extraordinary kinship" with Snowden. "What he did was a magnificent act of civil disobedience. He's exposing the inner workings of the surveillance state. And it's in the public interest. It truly is."[265][266]

WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange hailed Snowden as a "hero" who has exposed "one of the most serious events of the decade – the creeping formulation of a mass surveillance state."[267] After charges against Snowden were revealed, Assange released a statement asking people to "step forward and stand with" Snowden.[268] Following President Obama's assurances that changes are planned for the NSA surveillance program, Assange said in a written statement that Obama had "validated Edward Snowden's role as a whistle-blower".[269][270]

Shamai Leibowitz, who leaked details about an FBI operation, said that the legal threats and "smear campaign" against Snowden are a "grave mistake" because "If the government really wanted to keep more secrets from coming out, they would do well to let this man of conscience go live his life in some other country."[271]

انظر أيضاً

الهوامش

  1. ^ Hong Kong's Secretary for Justice Rimsky Yuen argued that government officials did not issue a provisional arrest warrant for Snowden due to "discrepancies and missing information" in the paperwork sent by U.S. authorities. Yuen explained that Snowden full name was inconsistent, and his U.S. passport number was also missing.[76] Hong Kong also wanted more details of the charges and evidence against Snowden to make sure it was not a political case. Secretary for Justice Rimsky Yuen said he spoke to US Attorney General Eric Holder by phone to reinforce the request for details "absolutely necessary" for detention of Snowden. Yuen said "As the US government had failed to provide the information by the time Snowden left Hong Kong, it was impossible for the Department of Justice to apply to a court for a temporary warrant of arrest. In fact, even at this time, the US government has still not provided the details we asked for."[77]

المصادر

  1. ^ Greenwald, Glenn; MacAskill, Ewen; Poitras, Laura (June 10, 2013). "Edward Snowden: the whistleblower behind the NSA surveillance revelations". The Guardian. London. The individual responsible for one of the most significant leaks in US political history is Edward Snowden, a 29-year-old former technical assistant for the CIA and current employee of the defense contractor Booz Allen Hamilton. Snowden has been working at the National Security Agency for the last four years as an employee of various outside contractors, including Booz Allen and Dell.
  2. ^ أ ب ت ث Gellman, Barton; Markon, Jerry (June 9, 2013). "Edward Snowden says motive behind leaks was to expose 'surveillance state'". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 10, 2013. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "wash1" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "wash1" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  3. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Gellman, Barton; Blake, Aaron; Miller, Greg (June 9, 2013). "Edward Snowden comes forward as source of NSA leaks". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 10, 2013. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "wash2" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "wash2" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  4. ^ Smith, Matt (9 June 2013). "NSA leaker comes forward, warns of agency's 'existential threat'". CNN. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  5. ^ Calderone, Michael (7 June 2013). "Washington Post Began PRISM Story Three Weeks Ago, Heard Guardian's 'Footsteps'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  6. ^ Gellman, Barton; Blake, Aaron; Miller, Greg (9 June 2013). "Edward Snowden identified as source of NSA leaks". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
  7. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز Greenwald, Glenn; MacAskill, Ewen; Poitras, Laura (9 June 2013). Written at Hong Kong. "Edward Snowden: the whistleblower behind the NSA surveillance revelations". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 9 June 2013. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "guardian-reveal" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  8. ^ أ ب Finn, Peter; Horwitz, Sari (June 21, 2013). "U.S. charges Snowden with espionage". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 21, 2013.
  9. ^ أ ب ت "US attorney general's letter to Russian justice minister" (PDF). BBC. July 26, 2013. Retrieved July 26, 2013.
  10. ^ أ ب U.S. vs. Edward J. Snowden criminal complaint. The Washington Post.
  11. ^ Why Edward Snowden Is a Hero. The New Yorker.
  12. ^ Oliver Stone defends Edward Snowden over NSA revelations. The Guardian. (July 5, 2013).
  13. ^ Daniel Ellsberg: Edward Snowden Was Right To Leave The U.S. Huffington Post.
  14. ^ Amash: Snowden a whistle-blower, 'told us what we need to know'. Fox News (August 4, 2013).
  15. ^ "As Edward Snowden Receives Asylum in Russia, Poll Shows Americans Sympathetic to NSA 'Whistle-Blower' – Washington Whispers". usnews.com. August 1, 2013.
  16. ^ أ ب Gold, Hadas. "Former Sen. Gordon Humphrey emails with Edward Snowden". Politico. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
  17. ^ ""Russian State Duma named E. Snowden a dissident and fighter agains the system" ("В Госдуме Э.Сноудена назвали новым диссидентом и борцом с системой")". RBC Daily. 26. Retrieved August 4, 2013. The head of the State Duma Committee on International Affairs Alexei Pushkov has called Edward Snowden, the whistleblower on the US intelligence services, as a new dissident fighting with the system. The deputy wrote this in his microblog. "Assange, Manning and Snowden were no spies and they gave away secret information not out of money but out of conviction. They are the new dissidents, fighters with the system, "- A.Pushkov believes." "Глава комитета Госдумы по международным делам Алексей Пушков назвал разоблачителя спецслужб США Эдварда Сноудена новым диссидентом, борющимся с системой. Об этом депутат написал в своем микроблоге. «Ассандж, Мэннинг и Сноуден не были шпионами и выдали секретную информацию не за деньги, а из убеждений. Они – новые диссиденты, борцы с системой», – считает А.Пушков. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ أ ب LoGiurato, Brett (June 11, 2013). "John Boehner: Edward Snowden Is A 'Traitor'". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved June 11, 2013.
  19. ^ de Nesnera, Andre (August 8, 2013). "Is NSA Leaker Edward Snowden a Traitor?". Washington: Voice of America. Retrieved August 9, 2013.
  20. ^ Klein, Ezra. "Edward Snowden, patriot". The Washington Post.
  21. ^ "Opinion: Edward Snowden is a patriot – Trevor Timm". Politico.Com.
  22. ^ Blake, Aaron (June 9, 2013). "Clapper: Leaks are 'literally gut-wrenching,' leaker being sought". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 8, 2013.
  23. ^ "Jimmy Carter Defends Snowden, Says U.S. Has No "Functioning Democracy"". Thenewamerican.com.
  24. ^ أ ب ت ث Tracy, Connor (10 June 2013). "What we know about NSA leaker Edward Snowden". NBC News.
  25. ^ Itkowitz, Colby; Sheehan, Daniel Patrick (10 June 2013). "Edward Snowden's father, stepmother plan to make public statement". The Morning Call.
  26. ^ Toppo, Greg (10 June 2013). "Former neighbor remembers Snowden as 'nice kid'". USA Today.
  27. ^ "Profile: Edward Snowden". BBC News. 10 June 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  28. ^ Leger, Donna Leinwand (9 June 2013). "NSA contractor: 'I know I have done nothing wrong'". USA Today. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
  29. ^ Malkin, Bonnie (11 June 2013). "Edward Snowden's girlfriend revealed to be former ballet dancer". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  30. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة BirthDate
  31. ^ Leger, Donna Leinwand (10 June 2013). "Who is NSA whisteblower Edward Snowden?". Detroit Free Press. USA Today.
  32. ^ "Edward Snowden: Ex-CIA worker comes forward as leaker, says he was protecting 'basic liberties'". Chicago Tribune. Reuters. 10 June. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ^ Memmott, Mark (10 June 2013). "Who Is Edward Snowden, The Self-Styled NSA Leaker?". National Public Radio.
  34. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة booz-allen-statement
  35. ^ Borger, Julian (9 June 2013). "Booz Allen Hamilton: Edward Snowden's U.S. contracting firm". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 9 June 2003. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
  36. ^ Bacon, John. "Contractor fires Snowden from $122,000 per-year job". USA Today. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  37. ^ NSA whistle-blower Edward Snowden FIRED from $122,000 per-year job with defense contractor Booz Hamilton
  38. ^ Greenwald: Snowden’s salary ‘didn’t really strike me as a central part of the story’
  39. ^ Did Snowden really earn a $200,000 salary?
  40. ^ Lewis, Paul; McVeigh, Karen (10 June 2013). "Edward Snowden: what we know about the source behind the NSA files leak". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  41. ^ أ ب MacAskill, Ewen (9 June 2013). "NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden: 'I do not expect to see home again'". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
  42. ^ Zara, Christopher (9 June 2013). "NSA Whistleblower Revealed: Edward Snowden Donated $500 To Ron Paul's 2012 Presidential Campaign: Does NSA Whistleblower Have Libertarian Leanings?". International Business Times. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
  43. ^ "Edward Snowden's Father Speaks Out To Fox About Media 'Misinformation,' Asks Son To Stop Leaking". Mediaite. May 26, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2013.
  44. ^ Lam, Lana (June 13, 2013). "EXCLUSIVE: Whistle-blower Edward Snowden talks to South China Morning Post". South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. Retrieved June 28, 2013.
  45. ^ أ ب Carmon, Irin (10 June 2013). "How we broke the NSA story". Salon. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  46. ^ "Board of Directors". Freedom of the Press Foundation. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  47. ^ أ ب Weinger, Mackenzie (10 June 2013). "Barton Gellman, Glenn Greenwald feud over NSA leaker". Politico. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  48. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Gellman, Barton (10 June 2013). "Code name 'Verax': Snowden, in exchanges with Post reporter, made clear he knew risks". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  49. ^ أ ب Smith, Matt; Pearson, Michael (June 10, 2013). "NSA leaker holed up in Hong Kong hotel, running low on cash". CNN. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  50. ^ "US leaker Edward Snowden 'defending liberty'". BBC News. June 10, 2013.
  51. ^ Yang, Jia Lynn (June 10, 2013). "Edward Snowden faces strong extradition treaty if he remains in Hong Kong". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  52. ^ Barchfield, Jenny (July 14, 2013). "Greenwald: Snowden docs contain NSA 'blueprint'". Associated Press. Retrieved July 14, 2013.
  53. ^ MacAskill, Ewen (June 12, 2013). "Edward Snowden: how the spy story of the age leaked out". The Guardian. London. Retrieved June 12, 2013.
  54. ^ NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden: 'I don't want to live in a society that does these sort of things' (video). The Guardian. London. June 9, 2013.
  55. ^ أ ب "Edward Snowden's statement to human rights groups in full". The Daily Telegraph. July 12, 2013.
  56. ^ "How The NSA Taps Undersea Fiber Optic Cables". http://siliconangle.com. 2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-07-22. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  57. ^ Barrett, Devlin; Chen, Te-Ping (June 24, 2013). "Snowden on the Run". The Wall Street Journal. New York.
  58. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة qa
  59. ^ "Statement regarding involvement of IMMI in Edward Snowden asylum request". Reykjavík, Iceland: International Modern Media Institute. June 9, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  60. ^ "Called a defector, NSA leaker defends his decision". CNN. June 10, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  61. ^ Pomfret, James; Roantree, Anne Marie (June 12, 2013). "American who leaked NSA secrets is a free man in Hong Kong – for now". Reuters. Retrieved June 12, 2013. Sources at Hong Kong law firms have said Snowden has approached human rights lawyers in the city and may be digging in his heels for a legal fight in preparation for the United States laying charges against him.
  62. ^ Lam, Lana (June 12, 2013). "Whistle-blower Edward Snowden tells SCMP: 'Let Hong Kong people decide my fate'". South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. Retrieved June 12, 2013.
  63. ^ Lam, Lana (June 13, 2013). "Whistleblower Edward Snowden talks to South China Morning Post". South China Morning Post. Retrieved June 12, 2013. He vowed to fight any extradition attempt by the US government, saying: 'My intention is to ask the courts and people of Hong Kong to decide my fate. I have been given no reason to doubt your system.'
  64. ^ Doksone, Thanyarat; Katz, Gregory (June 14, 2013). "NSA leaker Snowden not welcome in UK". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. New York. Associated Press. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
  65. ^ "Britain to airlines: Don't let Edward Snowden fly to U.K". CBS News. June 14, 2013. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
  66. ^ "WikiLeaks plane 'ready' to bring Snowden to Iceland". South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. Agence France-Presse. June 21, 2013. Retrieved June 21, 2013.
  67. ^ Ngo, Jennifer (June 21, 2013). "Julian Assange intervenes to help Snowden get to Iceland". South China Morning Post. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved June 20, 2013Article title in print: "Assange intervenes over Iceland option".{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  68. ^ "U.S. revokes Snowden's passport: official source". Reuters. June 23, 2013. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  69. ^ Shane, Scott (June 23, 2013). "Offering Snowden Aid, WikiLeaks Gets Back in the Game". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  70. ^ Makinen, Julie (June 23, 2013). "Snowden leaves Hong Kong; final destination unclear". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  71. ^ Perlez, Jane; Bradsher, Keith (June 24, 2013). "China Said to Have Made Call to Let Leaker Depart". The New York Times. p. A9 (US edition). Retrieved June 24, 2013Print title: "China Said to Have Made Call to Let Leaker Depart"{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  72. ^ "HKSAR Government issues statement on Edward Snowden" (Press release). Hong Kong Government. June 23, 2013.
  73. ^ Baker, Peter; Barry, Ellen (June 23, 2013). "N.S.A. 'Leaker Leaves Hong Kong, Local Officials Say'". The New York Times.
  74. ^ "Snowden left HK lawfully: CE". Hong Kong Information Services Department. June 24, 2013. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  75. ^ "No delay in Snowden case: SJ". Hong Kong Information Services Department. June 25, 2013. Archived from the original on June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  76. ^ "Hong Kong did not assist Snowden's departure". Global Post. Agence France-Presse. June 25, 2013. Yuen also said there were discrepencies and missing information in documents used to identify Snowden. 'On the diplomatic documents, James was used as the middle name, on the record upon entering the border, Joseph was used as the middle name, on the American court documents sent to us by the American Justice department, it only said Edward J Snowden,' he said. Hong Kong authorities also noticed that documents produced by the US did not show Snowden's American passport number.
  77. ^ Luk, Eddie (June 26, 2013). "Justice chief spells it out". The Standard. Hong Kong.
  78. ^ Pomfret, James; Torode, Greg (June 24, 2013). "Behind Snowden's Hong Kong exit: fear and persuasion". Reuters. Retrieved June 24, 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  79. ^ JShotVideo (June 25, 2013). "[ v e r a x ] : Edward Snowden / 斯諾登 – Short Film". YouTube. Retrieved July 4, 2013.
  80. ^ Maierbrugger, Arno (June 4, 2013). "Ready at last: Hong Kong director presents Snowden movie". Inside Investor. Retrieved June 4, 2013.
  81. ^ Самолет с Эдвардом Сноуденом приземлился в "Шереметьево" NEWSru, June 23, 2013.
  82. ^ "Сноуден попросил убежища в Эквадоре". Лента.Ру (in Russian). June 23, 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  83. ^ Montange, Renee (June 24, 2013). "For Edward Snowden, A Convoluted Path To Possible Asylum". NPR. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  84. ^ "Evo Morales se abre a ceder asilo a Edward Snowden si lo solicita". El Mercurio (in Spanish). Santiago. EFE. July 1, 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  85. ^ Portas: Portugal autorizou o sobrevoo de Morales Sol Online, July 9, 2013 (Portuguese)
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  94. ^ Reporting by Daniel Ramos; Writing by Caroline Stauffer; Editing by Paul Simao (July 15, 2013). "Spain apologizes to Bolivia for presidential plane delay". Reuters. Retrieved August 9, 2013.
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  102. ^ Österreichische Regierung sieht Formalfehler bei Asylantrag von Snowden. Derstandard.at.
  103. ^ "Teeven: geen asiel voor Snowden" (in Dutch). Novum Nieuws. July 2, 2013. Retrieved July 7, 2013. De Amerikaanse klokkenluider Edward Snowden kan fluiten naar een Nederlandse asielvergunning. [Fred] Teeven heeft het verzoek ontvangen, zegt hij. Maar het is 'niet-ontvankelijk' want de aanvraag is niet in Nederland gedaan.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
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