اللغة الجرينلاندية

هذا المقال هو عن the Eskimo–Aleut language. إذا كنت تريد the extinct North Germanic language، انظر Greenlandic Norse.
Greenlandic
kalaallisut
Kalaallisut-noentry-sign-home-rule.jpg
Sign in Greenlandic and Danish
موطنهاGreenland
المنطقةGreenland, Denmark
العرقGreenlandic Inuit
الناطقون الأصليون
57٬000 (2007)e25
الصيغ المبكرة
اللهجات
الوضع الرسمي
لغة رسمية في
 گرينلاند[1]
لغة أقلية
معترف بها في
ينظمها
أكواد اللغات
ISO 639-2kal
ISO 639-2kal
ISO 639-3kal
Glottologgree1280
IETFkl
Lang Status 80-VU.svg
West Greenlandic is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

الگرينلاندية ( Greenlandic ؛ Greenlandic: kalaallisut [kalaːɬːisʉt]; دنماركية: grønlandsk [ˈkʁɶnˌlanˀsk]) هي إحدى لغات الإسكيمو-ألوت يتكلم بها نحو 57,000 نسمة،[2] معظمهم إنويت گرينلاندي في گرينلاند. وهي وثيقة الارتباط بلغات الإنويت في كندا مثل إنوكتيتوت. In June 2009, the government of Greenland, the Naalakkersuisut, made Greenlandic the sole official language of the autonomous territory, to strengthen it in the face of competition from the colonial language, Danish. The main variety is Kalaallisut, or West Greenlandic. The second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat, or East Greenlandic. The language of the Inughuit (Thule Inuit) of Greenland, Inuktun or Polar Eskimo, is a recent arrival and a dialect of Inuktitut.

Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language that allows the creation of long words by stringing together roots and suffixes. The language's morphosyntactic alignment is ergative, treating both the argument (subject) of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb in one way, but the subject of a transitive verb in another. For example, "he plays the guitar" would be in the ergative case as a transitive agent, whereas "I bought a guitar" and "as the guitar plays" (the latter being the intransitive sense of the same verb "to play") would both be in the absolutive case.

Nouns are inflected by one of eight cases and for possession. Verbs are inflected for one of eight moods and for the number and person of its subject and object. Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology. The basic word order in transitive clauses is subject–object–verb. The subordination of clauses uses special subordinate moods. A so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects.

Greenlandic is notable for its lack of grammatical tense; temporal relations are expressed normally by context but also by the use of temporal particles such as "yesterday" or "now" or sometimes by the use of derivational suffixes or the combination of affixes with aspectual meanings with the semantic lexical aspect of different verbs. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic always marks future tense. Another question is whether the language has noun incorporation or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature.

When adopting new concepts or technologies, Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots, but modern Greenlandic has also taken many loans from Danish and English. The language has been written in Latin script since Danish colonization began in the 1700s. Greenlandic's first orthography was developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851, but within 100 years, it already differed substantially from the spoken language because of a number of sound changes. An extensive orthographic reform was undertaken in 1973 and made the script much easier to learn. This resulted in a boost in Greenlandic literacy, which is now among the highest in the world.[أ][5]

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التاريخ

توزع تنويعات لغات الإنويت في أرجاء المنطقة القطبية.

Greenlandic was brought to Greenland by the arrival of the Thule people in the 1200s. The languages that were spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures in Greenland are unknown.

The first descriptions of Greenlandic date from the 1600s. With the arrival of Danish missionaries in the early 1700s and the beginning of Danish colonization of Greenland, the compilation of dictionaries and description of grammar began. The missionary Paul Egede wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750 and the first grammar in 1760.[6]

From the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language. In the 1950s, Denmark's linguistic policies were directed at strengthening Danish. Of primary significance was the fact that post-primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish.[7]

From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt. In 1973, a new orthography was introduced, intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard, which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidt's time. The reform was effective, and in the years following it, Greenlandic literacy has received a boost.[7]

Another development that has strengthened Greenlandic language is the policy of "Greenlandization" of Greenlandic society that began with the home rule agreement of 1979. The policy has worked to reverse the former trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education. The fact that Greenlandic has become the only language used in primary schooling means that monolingual Danish-speaking parents in Greenland are now raising children bilingual in Danish and Greenlandic.[8] Greenlandic now has several dedicated news media: the Greenlandic National Radio, Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, which provides television and radio programming in Greenlandic. The newspaper Sermitsiaq has been published since 1958 and merged in 2010 with the other newspaper Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten, which had been established in 1861 to form a single large Greenlandic language publishing house.[9][10]

Before June 2009, Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish.[ب] Since then, Greenlandic has become the sole official language.[1] That has made Greenlandic a unique example of an indigenous language of the Americas that is recognized by law as the only official language of a semi-independent country. Nevertheless, it is still considered to be in a "vulnerable" state by the UNESCO Red Book of Language Endangerment.[12] The country has a 100% literacy rate.[13] As the Western Greenlandic standard has become dominant, a UNESCO report has labelled the other dialects as endangered, and measures are now being considered to protect the Eastern Greenlandic dialect.[14]


شجرة عائلة لغات الإنويت

Kalaallisut and the other Greenlandic dialects belong to the Eskimo–Aleut family and are closely related to the Inuit languages of Canada and Alaska. Illustration 1 shows the locations of the different Inuit languages, among them the three main dialects of Greenlandic.

مثال للاختلافات بين اللهجات الرئيسية الثلاث
العربية Kalaallisut Inuktun Tunumiisut
بشر inuit inughuit[15] iivit[16]

The most prominent Greenlandic dialect is Kalaallisut, which is the official language of Greenland. The name Kalaallisut is often used as a cover term for all of Greenlandic. The northern dialect, Inuktun (Avanersuarmiutut), is spoken in the vicinity of the city of Qaanaaq (Thule) and is particularly closely related to Canadian Inuktitut. The eastern dialect (Tunumiit oraasiat), spoken in the vicinity of Ammassalik Island and Ittoqqortoormiit, is the most innovative of the Greenlandic dialects since it has assimilated consonant clusters and vowel sequences more than West Greenlandic.[17]

Kalaallisut is further divided into four subdialects. One that is spoken around Upernavik has certain similarities to East Greenlandic, possibly because of a previous migration from eastern Greenland. A second dialect is spoken in the region of Uummannaq and the Disko Bay. The standard language is based on the central Kalaallisut dialect spoken in Sisimiut in the north, around Nuuk and as far south as Maniitsoq. Southern Kalaallisut is spoken around Narsaq and Qaqortoq in the south.[6] Table 1 shows the differences in the pronunciation of the word for "humans" in the three main dialects. It can be seen that Inuktun is the most conservative by maintaining قالب:Vr, which has been elided in Kalaallisut, and Tunumiisut is the most innovative by further simplifying its structure by eliding /n/.

انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

  1. ^ The CIA World Factbook has reported Greenlandic literacy as being 100 percent since at least 2007, when it also reported six other countries achieving one hundred percent literacy.[3] The Factbook's most recently reported data for Greenland literacy was for 2015.[4]
  2. ^ According to the Namminersornerullutik Oqartussat / Grønlands Hjemmestyres (Greenlands Home, official website): " Language. The official languages are Greenlandic and Danish.... Greenlandic is the language [that is] used in schools and [that] dominates in most towns and settlements".[11]

اختصارات

For affixes about which the precise meaning is the cause of discussion among specialists, the suffix itself is used as a gloss, and its meaning must be understood from context: -SSA (meaning either future or expectation), -NIKUU and -SIMA.

4:fourth (reflexive or obviative) person PART:participial mood EQU:equative case CONT:contemporative mood INT:intransitive INSTR:instrumental case POSS:possessor

CAU:causative mood

الهامش

  1. ^ أ ب "Lov om Grønlands Selvstyre" (PDF). Lovtidende (in الدانمركية). 2009-06-13. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-05. Det grønlandske sprog er det oficielle sprog i Grønland.
  2. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة e25
  3. ^ "Country Comparison to the World of Literacy Rate". World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. May 2007. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007.
  4. ^ "People and Culture: Literacy". Greenland. World Factbook (in الإنجليزية). Central Intelligence Agency. May 2023. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023.
  5. ^ ((International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions)) (2007), "Greenland", World Report 2007 Country Reports, IFLA, pp. 175-176, https://www.ifla.org/g/faife/world-report-2007-country-reports/ 
  6. ^ أ ب Rischel, Jørgen. Grønlandsk sprog.[1] Den Store Danske Encyklopædi Vol. 8, Gyldendal
  7. ^ أ ب Goldbach & Winther-Jensen (1988)
  8. ^ Iutzi-Mitchell & Nelson H. H. Graburn (1993)
  9. ^ Michael Jones, Kenneth Olwig. 2008. Nordic Landscapes: Region and Belonging on the Northern Edge of Europe. U of Minnesota Press, 2008, p. 133
  10. ^ Louis-Jacques Dorais. 2010. The Language of the Inuit: Syntax, Semantics, and Society in the Arctic. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, p. 208-9
  11. ^ "Culture and Communication". Archived from the original on 2009-02-27. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
  12. ^ UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger Archived 2009-02-22 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ "Greenland". CIA World Factbook. 2008-06-19. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
  14. ^ "Sermersooq will secure Eastern Greenlandic". Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa (in الدانمركية). 2010-01-06. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
  15. ^ Fortescue (1991) passim
  16. ^ Mennecier(1995) p 102
  17. ^ Mahieu & Tersis (2009) p. 53

أدبيات مذكورة

Bittner, Maria (1987). "On the Semantics of the Greenlandic Antipassive and Related Constructions" (PDF). International Journal of American Linguistics. 53 (2): 194–231. doi:10.1086/466053. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-06. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
Bittner, Maria (1995). "Quantification in Eskimo". In Emmon W. Bach (ed.). Quantification in natural languages. Vol. 2. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-3129-X.
Bittner, Maria (2005). "Future discourse in a tenseless language". Journal of Semantics. 12 (4): 339–388. doi:10.1093/jos/ffh029.
Bjørnum, Stig (2003). Grønlandsk grammatik (in الدانمركية). Atuagkat. ISBN 978-87-90133-14-6.
Fortescue, Michael (1980). "Affix Ordering in West Greenlandic Derivational Processes". International Journal of American Linguistics. 46 (4): 259–278. doi:10.1086/465662. JSTOR 1264708.
Fortescue, Michael (1984). West Greenlandic. Routledge. ISBN 0-7099-1069-X.
Fortescue, Michael (1991). "Switch reference anomalies and 'topic' in west greenlandic: A case of pragmatics over syntax". In Jef Verschueren (ed.). Levels of Linguistic Adaptation: selected papers of the International Pragmatics Conference, Antwerp, August 17–22, 1987, volume II. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ISBN 1-55619-107-3.
Fortescue, Michael (1991). Inuktun: An introduction to the language of Qaanaaq, Thule. Institut for Eskimologi, Københavns Universitet. ISBN 87-87874-16-4.
Fortescue, Michael; Lise Lennert Olsen (1992). "The Acquisition of West Greenlandic". In Dan Isaac Slobin (ed.). The Crosslinguistic study of language acquisition, vol 3. Routledge. pp. 111–221. ISBN 0-8058-0105-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
Fortescue, Michael (1993). "Eskimo word order variation and its contact-induced perturbation". Journal of Linguistics. 29 (02): 266–289. doi:10.1017/S0022226700000335. JSTOR 4176235.
van Geenhoven, Veerle (1998). Semantic incorporation and indefinite descriptions: semantic and syntactic aspects of noun incorporation in West Greenlandic. Stanford: CSLI Publications. ISBN 1-57586-133-X.
van Geenhoven, Veerle (2002). "Raised Possessors and Noun Incorporation in West Greenlandic,". Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 20 (4): 759–821. doi:10.1023/A:1020481806619.
Goldbach, Ib; Thyge Winther-Jensen (1988). "Greenland: Society and Education". Comparative Education. 24 (2, Special Number (11)): 257–266. doi:10.1080/0305006880240209. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
Grønlands sprognævn (1992). Icelandic Council for Standardization. Nordic cultural requirements on information technology. Reykjavík: Staðlaráð Íslands. ISBN 9979-9004-3-1.
(2005) "Is Inuktitut tenseless?" in 2005 CLA Annual Conference. Claire Gurski Proceedings of the 2005 Canadian Linguistics Association Annual Conference. 
Iutzi-Mitchell, Roy D.; Nelson H. H. Graburn (1993). "Language and educational policies in the North: Status and Prospectus report on the Eskimo–Aleut languages from an international symposium". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 1993 (99): 123–132. doi:10.1515/ijsl.1993.99.123. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
Jacobsen, Birgitte (2000). "The Question of 'Stress' in West Greenlandic:An Acoustic Investigation of Rhythmicization, Intonation, and Syllable Weight". Phonetica. 57 (1): 40–67. doi:10.1159/000028458. PMID 10867570.
Kappel Schmidt, Bodil (2003). "West Greenlandic Antipassive". Nordlyd. Proceedings of the 19th Scandinavian Conference of Linguistics. 31 (2): 385–399. Archived from the original on 2008-12-02. Retrieved 2010-01-10. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
Mahieu, Marc-Antoine; Nicole Tersis (2009). Variations on polysynthesis: the Eskaleut languages. Typological studies in language, 86. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-0667-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
Malouf, Robert (1999). "West Greenlandic noun incorporation in a monohierarchical theory of grammar". In Gert Webelhuth; Andreas Kathol; Jean-Pierre Koenig (eds.). Lexical and Constructional Aspects of Linguistic Explanation (PDF). Studies in constraint-based lexicalism. Stanford: CSLI Publications. ISBN 1-57586-152-6.
Mennecier, Philippe (1995). Le tunumiisut, dialecte inuit du Groenland oriental: description et analyse. Collection linguistique, 78 (in الفرنسية). Société de linguistique de Paris, Peeters Publishers. ISBN 2-252-03042-9.
Mithun, Marianne (1984). "The evolution of noun incorporation". Language. 60 (4): 847–895. doi:10.2307/413800. JSTOR 413800.
Mithun, Marianne (1986). "On the nature of noun incorporation". Language. 62 (1): 32–38. doi:10.2307/415599. JSTOR 415599.
Petersen, Robert (1990). "The Greenlandic language: its nature and situation". In Dirmid R. F. Collis (ed.). Arctic languages: an awakening. Paris: Unesco. pp. 293–308. ISBN 92-3-102661-5.
Rischel, Jørgen (1974). "Topics in West Greenlandic Phonology". Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. ISBN 87-500-1438-2. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Rischel, Jørgen (1985). "Was There a Fourth Vowel in Old Greenlandic?". International Journal of American Linguistics. 51 (4): 553–555. doi:10.1086/465970.
Rosen, Sara T. (1989). "Two types of noun incorporation: A lexical analysis". Language. 65 (2): 294–317. doi:10.2307/415334. JSTOR 415334.
Sadock, Jerrold (1980). "Noun incorporation in Greenlandic: A case of syntactic word-formation". Language. 57 (2): 300–319. doi:10.1353/lan.1980.0036. JSTOR 413758.
Sadock, Jerrold (1986). "Some notes on noun incorporation". Language. 62 (1): 19–31. doi:10.2307/415598. JSTOR 415598.
Sadock, Jerrold (1999). "The Nominalist Theory of Eskimo: A Case Study in Scientific Self Deception". International Journal of American Linguistics. 65 (4): 383–406. doi:10.1086/466400. JSTOR 1265857.
Sadock, Jerrold (2003). A Grammar of Kalaallisut (West Greenlandic Inuttut). Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN 978-3-89586-234-2.
Shaer, Benjamin (2003). "Toward the tenseless analysis of a tenseless language" in 2nd Conference on the Semantics of Under-represented Languages in the Americas. Proceedings of SULA 2: 139–56, GLSA, University of Massachusetts Amherst. 
Trondhjem, Naja Frederikke (2009). "11. The marking of past time in Kalaallisut, the Greenlandic language". In Mahieu, Marc-Antoine & Nicole Tersis (ed.). Variations on polysynthesis: the Eskaleut languages. Typological studies in language, 86. John Benjamins. pp. 171–185. ISBN 978-90-272-0667-1.
Underhill, Robert (1976). "The Case for an Abstract Segment in Greenlandic". International Journal of American Linguistics. 42 (4): 349–358. doi:10.1086/465439. JSTOR 1264267.
Woodbury, Anthony C. (1983). "Switch-reference, syntactic organization, and rhetorical structure in Central Yup'ik Eskimo". In John Haiman; Pamela Munro (eds.). Switch-reference and universal grammar. Typological studies in language, 2. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 291–316. ISBN 90-272-2862-0.


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للاستزادة

  • Fortescue, M. D. (1990). From the writings of the Greenlanders = Kalaallit atuakkiaannit. [Fairbanks, Alaska]: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 0-912006-43-9

وصلات خارجية

قالب:Greenlandic language قالب:Eskimo-Aleut languages قالب:Languages of Denmark قالب:Greenland topics

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