پارما

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Parma Pärma (إميلية)
Comune
Comune di Parma
Palazzo del Governatore
Flag Coat of arms
Location of Parma
Parma موقع Parma في Emilia-Romagna Parma Parma (Emilia-Romagna)
الإحداثيات: 44°48′05.3″N 10°19′40.8″E
البلد	إيطاليا
المنطقة	Emilia-Romagna
المقاطعة	پارما (PR)
Frazioni	See list
الحكومة
• العمدة	Federico Pizzarotti ([[قائمة الأحزاب السياسية في إيطاليا|Independent]])
المساحة
• الإجمالي	260٫77 كم² (100٫68 ميل²)
المنسوب	55 m (180 ft)
التعداد  (30 June 2018)
• الإجمالي	197٬132
• الكثافة	760/km2 (2٬000/sq mi)
صفة المواطن	Parmigiano
منطقة التوقيت	UTC+1 (CET)
• الصيف (التوقيت الصيفي)	UTC+2 (CEST)
الرمز البريدي	43121-43126
مفتاح الهاتف	0521
Patron saint	Sant'Ilario di Poitiers, Sant'Onorato, San Rocco
يوم القديس	January 13
الموقع الإلكتروني	Official website

پارما مدينة في شمال إيطاليا ضمن إقليم إيميليا-رومانيا، عاصمة مقاطعة پارما ، تقغ على نهر بو أسسها الرومان عام 183 م سكانها 176,000 نسمة .

تأسست بارما في عهد الجمهورية الرومانية (509 ق.م. – 27 ق.م.) وتحوي كنوزًا أدبية وفنية كثيرة. شيدت بها كاتدرائية في القرن الحادي عشر الميلادي، وهي نموذج لفن العمارة اللومباردي الرومانسكي. وقد زين التشكيلي كوريجيو قبتها بلوحة جصية تعرف باسم رفع العذراء.

أسست جامعة پارما في عام 1502م وتشتهر المنطقة المحيطة ببارما بصناعة جبن پارميزان.

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 التاريخ

Historical affiliations

Roman Republic 183–27 BC

Roman Empire 27 BC–285 AD
Western Roman Empire 285–476
Kingdom of Odoacer 476–493
Ostrogothic Kingdom 493–553
Eastern Roman Empire 553-568
Lombard Kingdom 568–773
Carolingian Empire 773–781
Regnum Italiae 781–1014
Holy Roman Empire 1014–1114
Free Commune 1114–1341
Duchy of Milan 1341–1513
Papal States 1513–1554
Duchy of Parma 1554–1808
First French Empire 1808–1814
Duchy of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla 1814–1848
Duchy of Parma 1851–1859
United Provinces of Central Italy 1859–1860
Kingdom of Italy 1861–1946

Italian Republic 1946–present

 ما قبل التاريخ

Parma was already a built-up area in the Bronze Age. In the current position of the city rose a terramare. The "terramare" (marl earth) were ancient villages built of wood on piles according to a defined scheme and squared form; constructed on dry land and generally in proximity to the rivers. During this age (between 1500 BC and 800 BC) the first necropolis (on the sites of the present-day Piazza Duomo and Piazzale della Macina) were constructed.

 Antiquity

The city was most probably founded and named by the Etruscans, for a parma or palma (circular shield) was a Latin borrowing, as were many Roman terms for particular arms, and the names Parmeal, Parmni and Parmnial appear in Etruscan inscriptions. Diodorus Siculus reported that the Romans had changed their rectangular shields for round ones, imitating the Etruscans. Whether the Etruscan encampment acquired its name from its round shape, like a shield, or from its metaphorical function as a shield against the Gauls to the north, remains uncertain.

The Roman colony was founded in 183 BC, together with Mutina (Modena); 2,000 families were settled. Parma had a certain importance as a road hub over the Via Aemilia and the Via Claudia. It had a forum, in what is today the central Garibaldi Square. In April 43 BC the city was destroyed. Subsequently Augustus rebuilt it. During the Roman Empire, it gained the title of Julia for its loyalty to the imperial house.

Attila sacked the city in 452, and the Germanic king Odoacer later gifted it to his followers. During the Gothic War, however, Totila destroyed it. It was then part of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna (changing its name to Chrysopolis, "Golden City", probably due to the presence of the imperial treasury) and, from 569, of the Lombard Kingdom of Italy. During the Middle Ages, Parma became an important stage of the Via Francigena, the main road connecting Rome to Northern Europe; several castles, hospitals and inns were built in the following centuries to host the increasing number of pilgrims who passed by Parma and Fidenza, following the Apennines via Collecchio, Berceto and the Corchia ranges before descending the Passo della Cisa into Tuscany, heading finally south toward Rome.

The city had a medieval Jewish community. The Palatine Library houses the largest collection of Hebrew manuscripts in Italy, and the second-largest in the world after the Bodleian Library in Oxford.

 Middle Ages

Baptistery of Parma, 1196–1270

Under Frankish rule, Parma became the capital of a county in 774. Like most northern Italian cities, it was nominally a part of the Holy Roman Empire created by Charlemagne, but locally ruled by its bishops, the first being Guibodus. In the subsequent struggles between the Papacy and the Empire, Parma was usually a member of the Imperial party. Two of its bishops became antipopes: Càdalo, founder of the cathedral, as Honorius II; and Guibert, as Clement III. An almost independent commune was created around 1140; a treaty between Parma and Piacenza of 1149 is the earliest document of a comune headed by consuls. After the Peace of Constance in 1183 confirmed the Italian communes' rights of self-governance, long-standing quarrels with the neighbouring communes of Reggio Emilia, Piacenza and Cremona became harsher, with the aim of controlling the vital trading line over the Po River.

The struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines was a feature of Parma too. In 1213, her podestà was the Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli. Then, after a long stance alongside the emperors, the Papist families of the city gained control in 1248. The city was besieged in 1247–48 by Emperor Frederick II, who was however crushed in the battle that ensued.

By 1328, Rolando de' Rossi was made signore of Parma. In 1331, the city submitted to King John of Bohemia. Parma fell under the control of Milan in 1341. After a short-lived period of independence under the Terzi family (1404–1409), the Sforza imposed their rule (1440–1449) through their associated families of Pallavicino, Rossi, Sanvitale and Da Correggio. These created a kind of new feudalism, building towers and castles throughout the city and the land. These fiefs evolved into truly independent states: the Landi governed the higher Taro's valley from 1257 to 1682. The Pallavicino seignory extended over the eastern part of today's province, with the capital in Busseto. Parma's territories were an exception for Northern Italy, as its feudal subdivision frequently continued until more recent years. For example, Solignano was a Pallavicino family possession until 1805, and San Secondo belonged to the Rossi well into the 19th century.

 Modern era

Parma in the 15th century

Between the 14th and the 15th centuries, Parma was at the centre of the Italian Wars. The Battle of Fornovo was fought in its territory. The French held the city in 1500–1521, with a short Papal parenthesis in 1512–1515. After the foreigners were expelled, Parma belonged to the Papal States until 1545.

In that year the Farnese pope, Paul III, detached Parma and Piacenza from the Papal States and gave them as a duchy to his illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese, whose descendants ruled in Parma until 1731, when Antonio Farnese, last male of the Farnese line, died. In 1594 a constitution was promulgated, the University enhanced and the Nobles' College founded. The war to reduce the barons' power continued for several years: in 1612 Barbara Sanseverino was executed in the central square of Parma, together with six other nobles charged of plotting against the duke. At the end of the 17th century, after the defeat of Pallavicini (1588) and Landi (1682) the Farnese duke could finally hold with firm hand all Parmense territories. The castle of the Sanseverino in Colorno was turned into a luxurious summer palace by Ferdinando Bibiena.

In the Treaty of London (1718) it was promulgated that the heir to the combined Duchy of Parma and Piacenza would be Elisabeth Farnese's elder son with Philip V of Spain, Don Carlos. In 1731, the fifteen-year-old Don Carlos became Charles I Duke of Parma and Piacenza, at the death of his childless great uncle Antonio Farnese. In 1734, Charles I conquered the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, and was crowned as the King of Naples and Sicily on 3 July 1735, leaving the Duchy of Parma to his brother Philip (Filippo I di Borbone-Parma). All the outstanding art collections of the duke's palaces of Parma, Colorno and Sala Baganza were moved to Naples.

The city of Parma, divided by the river of the same name, with the imposing Romanesque Cathedral of the Ascension of the Virgin prominent on the right bank. 16th century.

Parma was under French influence after the Peace of Aachen (1748). Parma became a modern state with the energetic action of prime minister Guillaume du Tillot. He created the bases for a modern industry and fought strenuously against the church's privileges. The city lived a period of particular splendour: the Biblioteca Palatina (Palatine Library), the Archaeological Museum, the Picture Gallery and the Botanical Garden were founded, together with the Royal Printing Works directed by Giambattista Bodoni, aided by the Amoretti Brothers as skilled and inspired punchcutters.

 Contemporary age

Parma in 1832

During the Napoleonic Wars (1802–1814), Parma was annexed to France and made capital of the Taro Department. Under its French name, Parme, it was also created a duché grand-fief de l'Empire for Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, the Emperor's Arch-Treasurer, on 24 April 1808 (extinguished in 1926).

After the restoration of the Duchy of Parma by the 1814–15 Vienna Congress, the Risorgimento's upheavals had no fertile ground in the tranquil duchy. In 1847, after Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma's death, it passed again to the House of Bourbon, the last of whom was stabbed in the city and left it to his widow, Luisa Maria of Berry. On 15 September 1859 the dynasty was declared deposed, and Parma entered the newly formed province of Emilia under Luigi Carlo Farini. With the plebiscite of 1860 the former duchy became part of the unified Kingdom of Italy.

The loss of the capital role provoked an economic and social crisis in Parma. It started to recover its role of industrial prominence after the railway connection with Piacenza and Bologna of 1859, and with Fornovo and Suzzara in 1883. Trade unions were strong in the city, in which a notable General Strike was declared from 1 May to 6 June 1908. The struggle with Fascism had its most dramatic moment in August 1922, when the regime officer Italo Balbo attempted to enter the popular quarter of Oltretorrente. The citizens organized into the Arditi del Popolo ("The people's daring ones") and pushed back the squadristi. This episode is considered the first example of Resistance in Italy.

View of Palazzo della Pilotta in Piazza della Pace. The rebuilt part on the right is where once was the church of St. Peter.

During World War II, Parma was a strong centre of partisan resistance. The train station and marshalling yards were targets for high altitude bombing by the Allies in the spring of 1944. Much of the Palazzo della Pilotta, situated not far (half a mile) from the train station, was destroyed. Along with it the Teatro Farnese and part of the Biblioteca Palatina were destroyed by Allied bombs; some 21,000 volumes of the library's collection were lost. Several other monuments were also damaged: Palazzo del Giardino, Steccata and San Giovanni churches, Palazzo Ducale, Paganini theater and the monument to Verdi. However, Parma did not see widespread destruction during the war. Parma was liberated from the German occupation (1943–1945) on 26 April 1945 by the partisan resistance and the Brazilian Expeditionary Force.

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 الجغرافيا

 المناخ

In Parma, the average annual high temperature is 17 °C (63 °F), the annual low temperature is 9 °C (48 °F), and the annual precipitation is 777 millimetres (30.59 inches).

The following data comes from the weather station located at the university in the city center. It is affected by the urban heat island phenomenon. Parma has a mid-latitude, four-season humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa) with heavy continental influences due to the city's inland position. Relatively nearby coastal areas like Genoa have far milder climates with cooler summers and milder winters, with the mountains separating Parma from the Mediterranean Sea acting as a barrier to the sea air. The city receives approximately 45 cm of snow each winter.

Climate data for پارما (وسط المدينة)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	4.1 (39.4)	7.5 (45.5)	13.2 (55.8)	18.0 (64.4)	22.8 (73.0)	27.3 (81.1)	30.1 (86.2)	29.3 (84.7)	24.8 (76.6)	17.8 (64.0)	10.3 (50.5)	5.4 (41.7)	17.6 (63.7)
Daily mean °C (°F)	1.3 (34.3)	3.9 (39.0)	8.9 (48.0)	13.1 (55.6)	17.6 (63.7)	21.8 (71.2)	24.4 (75.9)	23.9 (75.0)	19.9 (67.8)	13.9 (57.0)	7.6 (45.7)	2.9 (37.2)	13.3 (55.9)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	−1.5 (29.3)	0.4 (32.7)	4.5 (40.1)	8.3 (46.9)	12.5 (54.5)	16.3 (61.3)	18.6 (65.5)	18.2 (64.8)	15.0 (59.0)	10.1 (50.2)	4.8 (40.6)	0.4 (32.7)	9.0 (48.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	57 (2.2)	55 (2.2)	65 (2.6)	76 (3.0)	73 (2.9)	56 (2.2)	37 (1.5)	48 (1.9)	67 (2.6)	96 (3.8)	84 (3.3)	73 (2.9)	777 (30.6)
Source: Archivio climatico Enea-Casaccia (1961-1990)

 المزارات الرئيسية

Late Mannerist façade of the church of San Giovanni Evangelista, by Simone Moschino (1604), with sculpture by Giambattista Carra da Bissone

Façade of the church of San Francesco

Opera house programme near Teatro Regio

 الكنائس

The Cathedral and the Baptistry of Parma.

Façade of the church of St. Francis.

The Governor's Palace.

 القرى

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 الديمغرافيا

ISTAT 1 January 2016
		Parma		Italy
18 years old and under		16.46%		17.45%
65 years old and over		22.64%		22.04%
Foreign Population		15.91%		8.29%
Births/1,000 people		8.62 b		8.01 b

Largest resident foreign-born groups (1/1/2016)
Country of birth	Population
Moldova	4,967
Romania	3,513
Albania	2,661
Philippines	2,570
Tunisia	1,561
Nigeria	1,450
Ukraine	1,292
Morocco	1,264
Ghana	1,104
Ivory Coast	938
China	819

 الطعام

• 

  Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese, the true "parmesan"

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  Prosciutto di Parma (cured ham)

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  Tortelli d'erbetta

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  Anolini in brodo

 المدن الشقيقة

• شي‌جياژوانگ, جمهورية الصين الشعبية
• ميلواكي، وسكنسن، الولايات المتحدة
• گوادالاهار، اسبانيا
• بورگ-ان-برس, فرنسا
• تور, فرنسا
• ليوبليانا، سلوڤينيا
• ڤورمز, ألمانيا
• سگد, المجر
• مونكتون، كندا
• ستكتن، كاليفورنيا، الولايات المتحدة

 متنوعة

تفصيلة من جصيات كورجيو في Camera di San Paolo.

 انظر أيضا

• كلية پارما الأوروپية
• جامعة پارما

 وصلات خارجية

• The European Food Safety Authority Website
• پارما travel guide from Wikitravel
• The best of Parma
• Parma's view from satellite (Google Earth)
• 360° photos of City of Parma