تحطيم الأيقونات

(تم التحويل من Iconoclasm)
"Iconoclast" redirects here. For other uses, see Iconoclast (توضيح).
"انتصار الأرثوذكسية" على تحطيم الأيقونات في عهد الإمبراطورة تيودورا. أيقونة من أواخر القرن 14 – أوائل القرن 15.
A painting
In this Elizabethan work of propaganda, the top right of the picture depicts men busy pulling down and smashing icons, while power is being handed from the dying King Henry VIII to his far more staunchly Protestant son Edward VI.[1] National Portrait Gallery, London

تحطيم الأيقونات Iconoclasm‏[2] هو التدمير المتعمد لـالأيقونات الدينية وغيرها من الرموز أو الآثار، لدوافع دينية أو سياسية. وهو يمثل عنصرًا رئيسيًا متكررًا للتغيرات السياسية أو الدينية البارزة. يشمل المصطلح بشكل أكثر تحديدًا تدمير صورة الحاكم بعد وفاته أو الإطاحة به (الإدانة بعد الموت)، على سبيل المثال، ما حدث بعد وفاة إخناتون (Akhenaten) في مصر القديمة.

يطلق على الأشخاص المشاركين في تحطيم المعتقدات التقليدية أو الداعمين لها "الثائرون ضد العقائد التقليدية"، وهو المصطلح الذي تم تطبيقه بشكل مجازي على الأشخاص الذين يتحدون العقائد أو الاتفاقيات المبرمة. على النقيض من ذلك، يسمى الأشخاص الذين يقدسون أو يبجلون الصور الدينية (بواسطة محطمي الأيقونات) "المؤيدون للمعتقدات التقليدية". في السياق البيزنطي، يعرفون أيضًا باسم "المعتنقين للأيقونية"، أو "iconophiles".[3] Iconoclasm does not generally encompass the destruction of the images of a specific ruler after his or her death or overthrow, a practice better known as damnatio memoriae.

While iconoclasm may be carried out by adherents of a different religion, it is more commonly the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. The term originates from the Byzantine Iconoclasm, the struggles between proponents and opponents of religious icons in the Byzantine Empire from 726 to 842 AD. Degrees of iconoclasm vary greatly among religions and their branches, but are strongest in religions which oppose idolatry، بما في ذلك الديانات الإبراهيمية.[4] Outside of the religious context, iconoclasm can refer to movements for widespread destruction in symbols of an ideology or cause, such as the destruction of monarchist symbols أثناء الثورة الفرنسية.


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تحطيم الأيقونات الدينية

العصر القديم

المقالة الرئيسية: أخناتون
آمون

In the Bronze Age, the most significant episode of iconoclasm occurred in Egypt during the Amarna Period, when Akhenaten, based in his new capital of Akhetaten, instituted a significant shift in Egyptian artistic styles alongside a campaign of intolerance towards the traditional gods and a new emphasis on a state monolatristic tradition focused on the god Aten, the Sun disk—many temples and monuments were destroyed as a result:[5]

In rebellion against the old religion and the powerful priests of Amun, Akhenaten ordered the eradication of all of Egypt's traditional gods. He sent royal officials to chisel out and destroy every reference to Amun and the names of other deities on tombs, temple walls, and cartouches to instill in the people that the Aten was the one true god.

Public references to Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death. Comparing the ancient Egyptians with the Israelites, Jan Assmann writes:[6]

For Egypt, the greatest horror was the destruction or abduction of the cult images. In the eyes of the Israelites, the erection of images meant the destruction of divine presence; in the eyes of the Egyptians, this same effect was attained by the destruction of images. In Egypt, iconoclasm was the most terrible religious crime; in Israel, the most terrible religious crime was idolatry. In this respect Osarseph alias Akhenaten, the iconoclast, and the Golden Calf, the paragon of idolatry, correspond to each other inversely, and it is strange that Aaron could so easily avoid the role of the religious criminal. It is more than probable that these traditions evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, after all, closely related.

اليهودية

According to the Hebrew Bible, God instructed the Israelites to "destroy all [the] engraved stones, destroy all [the] molded images, and demolish all [the] high places" of the indigenous Canaanite population as soon as they entered the Promised Land.[7]

In Judaism, King Hezekiah purged Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem and all figures were also destroyed in the Land of Israel, including the Nehushtan, as recorded in the Second Book of Kings. His reforms were reversed in the reign of his son Manasseh.[بحاجة لمصدر]

تحطيم الأيقونات في التاريخ المسيحي

Scattered expressions of opposition to the use of images have been reported: in 305–306 AD, the Synod of Elvira appeared to endorse iconoclasm; Canon 36 states, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration."[8][9][i] Proscription ceased after the destruction of pagan temples. However, widespread use of Christian iconography only began as Christianity increasingly spread among gentiles after the legalization of Christianity by Roman Emperor Constantine (c. 312 AD). During the process of Christianisation under Constantine, Christian groups destroyed the images and sculptures expressive of the Roman Empire's polytheist state religion.[بحاجة لمصدر]

العصر البيزنطي

المقالة الرئيسية: تحطيم الأيقونات البيزنطي
تحطيم الأيقونات البيزنطي، Chludov Psalter، القرن التاسع.[10]

قد يقوم بتحطيم المعتقدات التقليدية أشخاص من ديانات مختلفة، ولكنها غالبًا ما تنشأ نتيجة نزاعات طائفية بين فصائل الدين الواحد. في المسيحية، حرض على تحطيم المعتقدات التقليدية الأشخاص الذين يتبنون التفسير الحرفي لـالوصايا العشر، التي تحرم صنع وعبادة "الصور المحفورة أو ما شابه ذلك".[11] اختلفت درجة تحطيم المعتقدات التقليدية بين الطوائف المسيحية إلى حد كبير.

الاصلاح الپروتستانتي

للمزيد من المعلومات: بيلدن‌شتورم and Iconophobia § Iconophobia and the English Reformation
تحطيم الأيقونات في القرن السادس عشر في الاصلاح الپروتستانتي. تماثيل بارزة في سانت ستيڤنزكرك في نيمگن، هولندا، وهوجمت ومُحيت وجوهها أثناء بيلدن‌شتورم.

لقد حطمنا نحو مائة صورة مؤمنة بالبدع؛ وسبع رهبان يحتضنون راهبة؛ وصورة الرب والمسيح؛ وصور أخرى مختلفة ذاخرة بالبدع؛ و 200 كانوا قد حـُطـِّموا قبل وصولي. وقد أخذنا بعيداً نقوشاً تتضرع بالدعاء Ora pro nobis ("صلّي لنا") وحطمنا صليباً حجرياً كبيراً أعلى الكنيسة.

— داوسنگ،[12] ص. 15، هاڤرهل، سفوك، 6 يناير 1644
نهب كنائس ليون من قِبل الكالڤنيين في 1562 بريشة أنطوان كارو.
بقايا تحطيم الأيقونات الإصلاحي، كلوشيه سان-بارتيليمي، لا روشل، فرنسا.
بقايا لوحة المذبح (أواخر 1300 – مطلع 1400) دُمـِّرت أثناء حل الأديرة الإنگليزي، منتصف القرن 16.


تحطيم الأيقونات الإسلامي

للمزيد من المعلومات: تحريم التصوير في الإسلام

Islam has a much stronger tradition of opposing the depictions of figures, especially religious figures,[4] with Sunni Islam being more opposed than Shia Islam. In the history of Islam, the act of removing idols from the Ka'ba in Mecca has great symbolic and historic importance for all believers.

In general, Muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings (animals and humans) within such sacred spaces as mosques and madrasahs. This opposition to figural representation is based not on the Qur'an, but on traditions contained within the Hadith. The prohibition of figuration has not always been extended to the secular sphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within Muslim art.[15] However, Western authors have tended to perceive "a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts" within Islamic society.[15]


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Early Islam in Arabia

The first act of Muslim iconoclasm dates to the beginning of Islam, in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus.[16] This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyyah.

The destruction of the idols of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under Muslim rule after the expansion of the caliphate. Most Christians under Muslim rule, for example, continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. A major exception to this pattern of tolerance in early Islamic history was the "Edict of Yazīd", issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazīd II in 722–723.[17] This edict ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of the caliphate. Researchers have discovered evidence that the order was followed, particularly in present-day Jordan, where archaeological evidence shows the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time. But, Yazīd's iconoclastic policies were not continued by his successors, and Christian communities of the Levant continued to make icons without significant interruption from the sixth century to the ninth.[18]

Egypt

The Sphinx profile in 2010, without the nose

Al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim in the mid-1300s. He was reportedly outraged by local Muslims making offerings to the Great Sphinx in the hope of controlling the flood cycle, and he was later executed for vandalism. However, whether this was actually the cause of the missing nose has been debated by historians.[19] Mark Lehner, having performed an archaeological study, concluded that it was broken with instruments at an earlier unknown time between the 3rd and 10th centuries.[20]

Ottoman conquests

Certain conquering Muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), which was converted into a mosque in 1453. Most icons were desecrated and the rest were covered with plaster. In the 1934, It'd decided to use of Hagia Sophia Mosque as a museum,(it was registered as a mosque), and the restoration of the mosaics was undertaken by the American Byzantine Institute beginning in 1932. In July 2020, Hagia Sophia was again converted to a mosque.


Contemporary events

للمزيد من المعلومات: Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia and Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL

Certain Muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas. There has been much controversy within Islam over the recent and apparently on-going destruction of historic sites by Saudi Arabian authorities, prompted by the fear they could become the subject of "idolatry."[21][22]

A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then-Taliban government of Afghanistan.[23] The act generated worldwide protests and was not supported by other Muslim governments and organizations. It was widely perceived in the Western media as a result of the Muslim prohibition against figural decoration. Such an account overlooks "the coexistence between the Buddhas and the Muslim population that marveled at them for over a millennium" before their destruction.[15] The Buddhas had twice in the past been attacked by Nadir Shah and Aurengzeb. According to art historian F. B. Flood, analysis of the Taliban's statements regarding the Buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theological concerns.[15] Taliban spokespeople have given many different explanations of the motives for the destruction.

During the Tuareg rebellion of 2012, the radical Islamist militia Ansar Dine destroyed various Sufi shrines from the 15th and 16th centuries in the city of Timbuktu, Mali.[24] In 2016, the International Criminal Court (ICC) sentenced Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi, a former member of Ansar Dine, to nine years in prison for this destruction of cultural world heritage. This was the first time that the ICC convicted a person for such a crime.[25]

The short-lived Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant carried out iconoclastic attacks such as the destruction of Shia mosques and shrines. Notable incidents include blowing up the Mosque of the Prophet Yunus (Jonah)[26] and destroying the Shrine to Seth in Mosul.[27]

Iconoclasm in India

للمزيد من المعلومات: Religious violence in India

In early Medieval India, there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration by Indian kings against rival Indian kingdoms, which involved conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, as well as conflicts between Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains.[28][29][30]

In 642, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I looted a Ganesha temple in the Chalukyan capital of Vatapi. In c. 692, Chalukya armies invaded northern India where they looted temples of Ganga and Yamuna.

In the 8th century, Bengali troops from the Buddhist Pala Empire desecrated temples of Vishnu Vaikuṇṭha, the state deity of Lalitaditya's kingdom in Kashmir. In the early 9th century, Indian Hindu kings from Kanchipuram and the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha looted Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka. In the early 10th century, the Pratihara king Herambapala looted an image from a temple in the Sahi kingdom of Kangra, which was later looted by the Pratihara king Yasovarman.[28][29][30]

During the Muslim conquest of Sindh

Records from the campaign recorded in the Chach Nama record the destruction of temples during the early 8th century when the Umayyad governor of Damascus, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf,[31] mobilized an expedition of 6000 cavalry under Muhammad bin Qasim in 712.

Historian Upendra Thakur records the persecution of Hindus and Buddhists:

Muhammad triumphantly marched into the country, conquering Debal, Sehwan, Nerun, Brahmanadabad, Alor and Multan one after the other in quick succession, and in less than a year and a half, the far-flung Hindu kingdom was crushed ... There was a fearful outbreak of religious bigotry in several places and temples were wantonly desecrated. At Debal, the Nairun and Aror temples were demolished and converted into mosques.[32]

Chola to Paramara dynasty

In the early 11th century, the Chola king Rajendra I looted temples in a number of neighbouring kingdoms, including:

In the mid-11th century, the Chola king Rajadhiraja plundered a temple in Kalyani. In the late 11th century, the Hindu king Harsha of Kashmir plundered temples as an institutionalised activity. In the late 12th to early 13th centuries, the Paramara dynasty attacked and plundered Jain temples in Gujarat.[28][29][30]

The Somnath temple and Mahmud of Ghazni

Perhaps the most notorious episode of iconoclasm in India was Mahmud of Ghazni's attack on the Somnath temple from across the Thar Desert.[38][39][40] The temple was first raided in 725, when Junayad, the governor of Sind, sent his armies to destroy it.[41] In 1024, during the reign of Bhima I, the prominent Turkic-Muslim ruler Mahmud of Ghazni raided Gujarat, plundering the Somnath temple and breaking its jyotirlinga despite pleas by Brahmins not to break it. He took away a booty of 20 million dinars.[42][40]:39 The attack may have been inspired by the belief that an idol of the goddess Manat had been secretly transferred to the temple.[43] According to the Ghaznavid court-poet Farrukhi Sistani, who claimed to have accompanied Mahmud on his raid, Somnat (as rendered in Persian) was a garbled version of su-manat referring to the goddess Manat. According to him, as well as a later Ghaznavid historian Abu Sa'id Gardezi, the images of the other goddesses were destroyed in Arabia but the one of Manat was secretly sent away to Kathiawar (in modern Gujarat) for safekeeping. Since the idol of Manat was an aniconic image of black stone, it could have been easily confused with a lingam at Somnath. Mahmud is said to have broken the idol and taken away parts of it as loot and placed so that people would walk on it. In his letters to the Caliphate, Mahmud exaggerated the size, wealth and religious significance of the Somnath temple, receiving grandiose titles from the Caliph in return.[42]:45-51

The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarapala (r. 1143–72), who rebuilt the temple out of stone.[44]


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Mamluk dynasty onward

Historical records compiled by Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the religious violence during the Mamluk dynasty under Qutb-ud-din Aybak. The first mosque built in Delhi, the "Quwwat al-Islam" was built with demolished parts of 20 Hindu and Jain temples.[45][46] This pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign.[47]

During the Delhi Sultanate, a muslim army led by Malik Kafur, a general of Alauddin Khalji, pursued two violent campaigns into south India, between 1309 and 1311, against three Hindu kingdoms of Deogiri (Maharashtra), Warangal (Telangana) and Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Many Temples were plundered; Hoysaleswara Temple was destroyed.[48][49]

In Kashmir, Sikandar Shah Miri (1389–1413) began expanding, and unleashed religious violence that earned him the name but-shikan, or 'idol-breaker'.[50] He earned this sobriquet because of the sheer scale of desecration and destruction of Hindu and Buddhist temples, shrines, ashrams, hermitages, and other holy places in what is now known as Kashmir and its neighboring territories. Firishta states, "After the emigration of the Bramins, Sikundur ordered all the temples in Kashmeer to be thrown down."[51] He destroyed vast majority of Hindu and Buddhist temples in his reach in Kashmir region (north and northwest India).[52]

In the 1460s, Kapilendra, founder of the Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty, sacked the Saiva and Vaishnava temples in the Cauvery delta in the course of wars of conquest in the Tamil country. Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya looted a Bala Krishna temple in Udayagiri in 1514, and looted a Vittala temple in Pandharpur in 1520.[28][29][30]

A regional tradition, along with the Hindu text Madala Panji, states that Kalapahad attacked and damaged the Konark Sun Temple in 1568.[53][54]

Some of the most dramatic cases of iconoclasm by Muslims are found in parts of India where Hindu and Buddhist temples were razed and mosques erected in their place. Aurangzeb, the 6th Mughal Emperor, destroyed the famous Hindu temples at Varanasi and Mathura.[55]

In modern India, the most high-profile case of iconoclasm was from 1992. Hindus, led by the Vishva Hindu Parishad and Bajrang Dal, destroyed the 430-year-old Islamic Janmasthan Mosque in Ayodhya that was built in 1528 by demolishing a Rama temple.[56][57]

Iconoclasm in East Asia

China

للمزيد من المعلومات: Anti-Western sentiment in China

There have been a number of anti-Buddhist campaigns in Chinese history that led to the destruction of Buddhist temples and images. One of the most notable of these campaigns was the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of the Tang dynasty.

During and after the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, there was widespread destruction of religious and secular images in China.

During the Northern Expedition in Guangxi in 1926, Kuomintang General Bai Chongxi led his troops in destroying Buddhist temples and smashing Buddhist images, turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters.[58] It was reported that almost all of the viharas in Guangxi were destroyed and the monks were removed.[59] Bai also led a wave of anti-foreignism in Guangxi, attacking Americans, Europeans, and other foreigners, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners and missionaries. Westerners fled from the province and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents.[60] The three goals of the movement were anti-foreignism, anti-imperialism and anti-religion. Bai led the anti-religious movement against superstition. Huang Shaohong, also a Kuomintang member of the New Guangxi clique, supported Bai's campaign. The anti-religious campaign was agreed upon by all Guangxi Kuomintang members.[61]

There was extensive destruction of religious and secular imagery in Tibet after it was invaded and occupied by China.[62]

Many religious and secular images were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976, ostensibly because they were a holdover from China's traditional past (which the Communist regime led by Mao Zedong reviled). The Cultural Revolution included widespread destruction of historic artworks in public places and private collections, whether religious or secular. Objects in state museums were mostly left intact.

Other examples

St. Helen's Gate in Cospicua, Malta, which had its marble coat of arms defaced during the French occupation of Malta
Statue of William of Orange formerly located on College Green, in Dublin. Erected in 1701, it was destroyed in 1929 - one of several memorials of British rule destroyed once Ireland achieved independence.

Other examples of political destruction of images include:

In the Soviet Union

Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Moscow, 5 December 1931

During and after the October Revolution, widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery in Russia took place, as well as the destruction of imagery related to the Imperial family. The Revolution was accompanied by destruction of monuments of tsars, as well as the destruction of imperial eagles at various locations throughout Russia. According to Christopher Wharton:[75]

In front of a Moscow cathedral, crowds cheered as the enormous statue of Tsar Alexander III was bound with ropes and gradually beaten to the ground. After a considerable amount of time, the statue was decapitated and its remaining parts were broken into rubble.

The Soviet Union actively destroyed religious sites, including Russian Orthodox churches and Jewish cemeteries, in order to discourage religious practice and curb the activities of religious groups.

During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and during the Revolutions of 1989, protesters often attacked and took down sculptures and images of Joseph Stalin, such as the Stalin Monument in Budapest.[76]

انظر أيضًا

الملاحظات

  1. ^ A possible translation is also: "There shall be no pictures in the church, lest what is worshipped and adored should be depicted on the walls."[بحاجة لمصدر]

المراجع والملاحظات

  1. ^ Aston 1993; Loach 1999, p. 187; Hearn 1995, pp. 75–76
  2. ^ Literally, "image-breaking", from باليونانية قديمة: [[[wikt:εἰκών|εἰκών]] و κλάω] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help). Iconoclasm may be also considered as a back-formation from iconoclast (من اليونانية εἰκοκλάστης). الكلمة اليونانية المناظرة لتحطيم الأيقونات هي εἰκονοκλασία – eikonoklasia.
  3. ^ "icono-, comb. form". OED Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved March 28, 2019.
  4. ^ أ ب Crone, Patricia. 2005. "Islam, Judeo-Christianity and Byzantine Iconoclasm." Pp. 59–96 in From Kavād to al-Ghazālī: Religion, Law and Political Thought in the Near East, c. 600-1100, (Variorum). Ashgate Publishing.
  5. ^ "Akhenaten." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 20 June 2020. via Encyclopedia.com.
  6. ^ Assmann, Jan. 2014. From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change. American University in Cairo Press, ISBN 977-416-631-0. p. 76.
  7. ^ Numbers 33:52 and similarly Deuteronomy 7:5
  8. ^ Elvira canons, Cua, http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/canon%20Law/ElviraCanons.htm, "Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et adoratur in parietibus depingatur" .
  9. ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia, "This canon has often been urged against the veneration of images as practised in the Catholic Church. Binterim, De Rossi, and Hefele interpret this prohibition as directed against the use of images in overground churches only, lest the pagans should caricature sacred scenes and ideas; Von Funk, Termel, and Henri Leclercq opine that the council did not pronounce as to the liceity or non-liceity of the use of images, but as an administrative measure simply forbade them, lest new and weak converts from paganism should incur thereby any danger of relapse into idolatry, or be scandalized by certain superstitious excesses in no way approved by the ecclesiastical authority." 
  10. ^ "Byzantine iconoclasm". Retrieved 2013-04-30.
  11. ^ "You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 5 You shall not bow down to them or serve them. . . ." (Exodus 20:4-5a, ESV.)
  12. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة Dowsing
  13. ^ Stark, Rodney (18 December 2007). The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success (in English). Random House Publishing Group. p. 176. ISBN 9781588365002. The Beeldenstorm, or Iconoclastic Fury, involved roving bands of radical Calvinists who were utterly opposed to all religious images and decorations in churches and who acted on their beliefs by storming into Catholic churches and destroying all artwork and finery.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  14. ^ Byfield, Ted (2002). A Century of Giants, A.D. 1500 to 1600: In an Age of Spiritual Genius, Western Christendom Shatters (in English). Christian History Project. p. 297. ISBN 9780968987391. Devoutly Catholic but opposed to Inquisition tactics, they backed William of Orange in subduing the Calvinist uprising of the Dutch beeldenstorm on behalf of regent Margaret of Parma, and had come willingly to the council at her invitation.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  15. ^ أ ب ت ث Flood, Finbarr Barry (2002). "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum". The Art Bulletin. 84 (4): 641–659. doi:10.2307/3177288. JSTOR 3177288.
  16. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. Retrieved 2011-12-08. Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
  17. ^ A. Grabar, L'iconoclasme byzantin: le dossier archéologique (Paris, 1984), 155–56.
  18. ^ King, G. R. D. (1985). "Islam, iconoclasm, and the declaration of doctrine". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 48 (2): 276–7. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00033346.
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