مقبرة الإمبراطوريات
Graveyard of Empires is a sobriquet associated with Afghanistan. The sobriquet originates from the alleged historical tendency that foreign powers often fail in their invasions of Afghanistan. It is unclear who coined the phrase, and its historical accuracy has been disputed.[1]
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خلفية
During the history of Afghanistan, several superpowers have attempted to invade Afghanistan without maintaining a stable, permanent rule. Modern examples included the British Empire during the first and Third Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839 - 1842, 1919), the Soviet Union in the Soviet–Afghan War (1979 – 1989) and the United States in the War in Afghanistan (2001 – 2021).[2][3] Some had attributed ancient empires to the narrative, including the Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks and Mongols.[4] The difficulty in invading Afghanistan was attributed to the prevalence of fortress-like qalats,[5] the deserts, the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan, its severe winter and its "impregnable clan loyalties".[6]
Use
Thomas Barfield has noted that the narrative of Afghanistan as an unconquerable nation has been used by Afghanistan itself to deter invaders.[7] In October 2001, during the United States invasion of Afghanistan, Taliban leader Mohammed Omar threatened the United States with the same fate of the British Empire and the Soviet Union.[7] US President Joe Biden referred to the sobriquet while delivering a public statement following the 2021 fall of Kabul as evidence that no further commitment of US military presence would consolidate the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[8]
Criticism
Foreign correspondent Rod Nordland noted that "in truth, no great empires perished solely because of Afghanistan."[1] Joint Services Command and Staff College lecturer Patrick Porter called the attribution "a false extrapolation from something that is true -- that there is tactical and strategic difficulty."[6]
Barfield pointed out that "for 2,500 years Afghanistan was always part of somebody’s empire, beginning with the Persian Empire in the fifth century B.C." Following Persian rule, Alexander the Great and his successors ruled over Afghanistan for 200 years. The Mongols, Timur and Babur of the Mughal Empire all used Afghanistan as a base in their expansion.[9] The British Empire was not destroyed after the Third Anglo-Afghan War[10], and the British had great successes against Afghanistan during the Second Anglo-Afghan War.[9][11] The fall of the British Empire was more commonly attributed to World War II.[6] While the Soviet–Afghan War was a major factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the opposition in Afghanistan was only possible with US, British, Pakistani and Saudi Arabian aid.[9][11] Furthermore, there is reason to believe that the Soviet Union would have collapsed regardless of the campaign. Nonetheless, the narrative allowed for argument from analogy and the claims of "history repeating itself," which proved popular amongst authors and pundits.[10]
المصادر
- ^ أ ب Nordland, Rod (2017-08-29). "The Empire Stopper". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ McCarthy, Niall (2021-07-26). "Infographic: Afghanistan: The Graveyard Of Empires". Statista Infographics. Archived from the original on 2021-07-28. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ Bearden, Milton (2001). "Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ Innocent, Malou; Carpenter, Ted Galen (2009-09-14). "Escaping the "Graveyard of Empires": A Strategy to Exit Afghanistan". Cato Institute. Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ Pillalamarri, Akhilesh (2017-06-30). "Why Is Afghanistan the 'Graveyard of Empires'?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ أ ب ت Neild, Barry (2011-07-05). "Is Afghanistan really a 'graveyard of empires?'". CNN.com. Archived from the original on 2021-03-23. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ أ ب Barfield 2012.
- ^ "Read the full transcript of President Biden's remarks on Afghanistan". The New York Times. 16 August 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-08-16.
- ^ أ ب ت Caryl, Christian (2010-07-26). "Bury the Graveyard". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2021-05-04. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
- ^ أ ب Kühn, Florian P. (2016). "Afghanistan and the 'Graveyard of Empires': Blumenberg, Under-complex Analogy and Basic Myths in International Politics". Myth and Narrative in International Politics. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK: 147–172. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-53752-2_8.
- ^ أ ب Bergen, Peter (2009-03-28). "Graveyard Myths". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2013-03-06. Retrieved 2021-08-13.
المراجع
- Barfield, Thomas (2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15441-1.