لا فلز

(تم التحويل من لا فلز ثنائي الذرات)
A periodic table showing 14 elements listed by nearly all authors as nonmetals (the noble gases plus fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur); 3 elements listed by most authors as nonmetals (carbon, phosphorus and selenium); and 6 elements listed as nonmetals by some authors (boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony). Nearby metals are aluminium, gallium, indium, thallium, tin, lead, bismuth, polonium, and astatine.
Extract of periodic table showing how often each element is classified as a nonmetal:
  14  effectively always[n 1]   3  frequently[n 2]   6  sometimes (metalloids)[n 3]
Nearby metals are shown in a gray font.[n 4]
There is no precise definition of a nonmetal; which elements are counted as such varies.
Hydrogen is usually in group 1 (per the below full table) but can be in group 17 (per the above extract).[n 5]
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اللا فلزات مثل الفلزات وأشباه الفلزات إحدى السلاسل الكيميائية ، وتتميز بخصائص معينة من ناحية التأين والترابط . وتنبع هذه الخواص من ان اللافلزات عالية السالبية الكهربية ، أى أنها تكتسب إلكترونات التكافؤ من الذرات الأخرى أسرع من فقدها .

اللافلزات مرتبة حسب الرقم الذري هى كالتالى :

معظم اللافلزات توجد في أعلى الجانب الأيسر من الجدول الدوري ، فيما عدا الهيدروجين والذى يتم وضعه عادة في أعلى الجانب الأيمن مع الفلزات القلوية ، ولكنه يتصرف مثل اللافلزات في معظم الأحيان . اللا فلزات عكس الفلزات من حيث التوصيل الكهربى ، فهى إما عازلة أو شبه موصلة . ويمكك أن تقوم اللافلزات بتكوين رابطة أيونية مع الفلزات بإكتساب الإلكترونات ، أو تكون رابطة تساهمية مع لا فلزات أخرى . وتكون أكاسيد اللافلزات حمضية .

ورغم أنه يوجد 12 عنصر معروف من اللافلزات بالمقارنة بما يزيد عن 90 من الفلزات ، فإن اللافلزات يتكون منها معظم الأرض تقريبا ، وخاصة الطبقات الخارجية . وتتكون الكائنات الحية كلها تقريبا من اللافلزات . ويوجد كثير من اللافلزات ( الهيدروجين ، النيتروجين ، الأكسجين ، الفلور ، الكلور ، البروم ، اليود في حالة جزئي مزدوج الذرة ، و الباقى معظمه يوجد في حالة جزيئ عديد الذرات . قلَّما يصادف عنصر يتمتع بجميع خواص المعادن أو اللامعادن، فالعناصر كافة تقريباً تجمع بين خواص المعادن واللامعادن بنسب متفاوتة. وتقع المعادن النموذجية في القسم الأيسر والسفلي من الجدول الدوري، في حين تحتل اللامعادن النموذجية القسم الأيمن العلوي فيه. أما العناصر التي تمتد بين هذين القسمين فهي عناصر وسطية، إلا أنه ليس هناك حدود واضحة تفصل بين هذه المناطق الثلاث. فالهدروجين، على سبيل المثال، يصنَّف لامعدناً، إذا اعتبرت حالته الغازية ووزنه النوعي وتحوّله إلى شوارد سالبة في الهدريدات. إلا أنه يمكن تصنيفه معدناً بالنظر إلى ناقليته الجيدة للحرارة وتشكيله أيونات موجبة في محاليل الحموض. والأنتموان Sb صلب في الدرجة العادية من الحرارة، ويتمتع ببريق معدني إلا أنه هش لا يقبل الطرق والسحب، ويكوّن مع الهدروجين، مثل اللامعادن، مركباً طياراً ذا صيغة محددة SbH3.

والعناصر الوسطية، القريبة من الخط المنكسر بخاصة، تتمتع بخواص المعادن واللامعادن في الوقت نفسه، ويطلق على هذه العناصر اسم أشباه المعادن metalloids وهي: البور B، السيلكون Si، الجرمانيوم Ge، الزرنيخ As، التلوريوم Te. وأشباه المعادن تشبه، نوعاً ما، اللامعادن في خواصها الفيزيائية والكيمياوية.

لعل من الأفضل بدلاً من تقسيم العناصر إلى معادن ولامعادن شرح الخواص المعدنية[ر:المعدن] والخواص اللامعدنية. فإذا أمكن إهمال الخواص اللامعدنية مقابل الخواص المعدنية، عدّ العنصر معدناً نموذجياً، وبالعكس. فمن المعادن النموذجية المعادن القلوية مثل الصوديوم والبوتاسيوم على الرغم من وزنها النوعي المنخفض نسبياً، ومن اللامعادن الكربون على الرغم من ناقليته الجيدة للكهرباء وارتفاع درجة انصهاره.

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الخواص العامة

الطبيعية

Variety in color and form
of some nonmetallic elements
Several dozen small angular stone like shapes, grey with scattered silver flecks and highlights.
Boron in its β-rhombohedral phase
A shiny grey-black cuboid nugget with a rough surface.
Metallic appearance of carbon as graphite
A pale blue liquid in a clear beaker
Blue color of liquid oxygen
A glass tube, is inside a larger glass tube, has some clear yellow liquid in it
Pale yellow liquid fluorine in a cryogenic bath
Yellow powdery chunks
Sulfur as a yellow powder
A small capped jar a quarter filled with a very dark liquid
Liquid bromine at room temperature
Shiny violet-black coloured crystalline shards.
Metallic appearance of iodine under white light
A partly filled ampoule containing a colorless liquid
Liquefied xenon

إن ما يميز الحالة المعدنية من اللامعدنية هو طبيعة الرابطة وشكل البنية البلورية، أما جميع الخواص الأخرى الملازمة للحالة المعدنية كالبريق المعدني والخواص الحرارية والكهربائية واللدونة فهي نتائج لطبيعة الرابطة المعدنية والبنية البلورية المعدنية.

اللامعادن، من حيث المظهر، غازات أو أجسام صلبة درجات انصهارها منخفضة، مثال ذلك الهالوجينات، وهي عناصر الفصيلة VII A التي تعدّ لامعادن نموذجية. فالفلور F2 والكلور Cl2 غازان، البروم Br2 سائل، واليودI2 صلب درجة انصهاره 113.75 ْس.

تتفق الرابطة المشتركة المميزة للاّمعادن مع الرابطة المعدنية من حيث الطبيعة إذ إن كلاً من الرابطتين يتولّد من اشتراك الذرات فيما بينها بإلكترونات التكافؤ، إلا أن الرابطة المشتركة رابطة متموضعة localized، تنشأ بين ذرتين متجاورتين وتبقى الإلكترونات المشتركة في جوارهما المباشر، مرتبطة بهما ارتباطاً متيناً، وهذه الرابطة المتينة بين ذرات الجسم الصلب لا تسمح بانزلاق الذرات بعضها حول بعض من دون تفكك الرابطة وتخرب بنيان هذا الجسم. وهذا ما يفسر كون البلورات الملحية واللامعادن الصلبة ذات الروابط المشتركة هشة وقابلة للكسر، بخلاف المعادن التي تتمتع بلدونة كبيرة بفضل الرابطة المعدنية[ر:الرابطة الكيمياوية].

اللامعادن، بخلاف المعادن، ليست لدنة لأن الرابطة المشتركة فيها لا تتحرك بتحرك إلكترونات التكافؤ، لذلك لا يمكن لذراتها أن تتحرك بالنسبة لبعضها بعضاً من دون أن تؤدي الحركة إلى انفصام الرابطة المشتركة وتصدُّع البنيان اللامعدني، فهي لذلك لا تقبل السحب والطَرْق والمعالجات الميكانيكية الأخرى سواء بالطريقة الباردة أو بالطريقة الساخنة.

اللامعادن، بخلاف المعادن، رديئة النقل للحرارة والكهرباء، ويعود السبب في ذلك إلى طبيعة الرابطة فيها، إذ تعلّل الناقلية الحرارية في النظريات التقليدية بسرعة تحرك الإلكترونات واصطدامها بعضها ببعض اصطداماً مرناً، وهذا التحرك السريع غير ممكن في اللامعادن. أما الناقلية الكهربائية فتنشأ من سهولة تحرك الإلكترونات في حقل كهربائي مؤثر في المادة، حتى لو كان هذا الحقل ضعيفاً، فالإلكترونات تتحرك من دون انتظام في كتلة المعدن في حال غياب الحقل الكهربائي، أما عند تطبيق فرق كمون معين بين طرفي قطعة معدنية، فإنه ينشأ حقل كهربائي ينظم حركة الإلكترونات باتجاه القطب الموجب مما، يولِّد التيار الكهربائي.

وتعلَّل الناقلية الحرارية والكهربائية العالية في المعادن وانخفاضها في أشباه المعادن واللامعادن حسب النظريات الحديثة، بأن حالة الإلكترونات الخارجية في الذرة الحرة لعنصر تختلف عن حالتها عندما تجتمع ذرات العنصر لتكوّن كتلة متراصَّة، في حين تحافظ الإلكترونات الداخلية على حالتها الطاقية، ففي الذرات الحرة تكون الإلكترونات الخارجية (إلكترونات التكافؤ) ذات طاقات محدّدة، أو بتعبير آخر، تشغل سويات طاقة محددة. أما في كتلة العنصر، عندما تصبح هذه الإلكترونات خاضعة لتأثير عدد كبير من النوى، فإن السويات الطاقية الممكنة لهذه الإلكترونات تزداد حتى قيم أعلى، أو بتعبير آخر، تشغل هذه الإلكترونات منطقة طاقية عريضة محددة أعلى من سويات الطاقة الموافقة في الذرات الحرة، وبالتالي تصبح الطاقة اللازمة لإثارة الإلكترون الخارجي كي ينتقل إلى حالة طاقية أعلى أو لخروجه من الغلاف الإلكتروني أصغر بكثير، ويكفي لذلك حقل كهربائي صغير أو طاقة حرارية صغيرة. ويبقى مبدأ باولي[ر: الذرة] مطبقاً على توزيع الإلكترونات في المناطق الطاقية، كما في حالة الذرات الحرة. وإذا كانت المناطق الطاقية الممكنة مشغولة بصورة تامة فإن الانتقال من حالة إلى أخرى يصبح غير ممكن، وتكون الناقلية الكهربائية والحرارية معدومة (كما في حالة اللامعادن)، وكلما كان الفرق بين سويتي الطاقة الموافقتين للحالة العادية والحالة المثارة صغيراً (في حالة وجود مناطق طاقية شاغرة) كانت الناقلية الحرارية والكهربائية أجود.

وعلى هذا فإن ما يميز المعدن من اللامعدن هو أن المعدن يحوي سويات طاقية إلكترونية شاغرة وسويات طاقية تشغلها الإلكترونات المثارة بامتصاص طاقة صغيرة نسبياً، في حين لا توجد في كتلة اللامعدن النموذجي (أو في المواد العازلة) سويات طاقة شاغرة. وتكون السويات المثارة الممكنة عالية لايمكن بلوغها إلا بامتصاص طاقة كبيرة، فاللامعدن لا يصبح ناقلاً إلا في درجات الحرارة العالية.

أشباه المعادن تنقل التيار الكهربائي، ولكن ليس بجودة المعادن، فمعظمها أنصاف نواقل. وللسيلسيوم Si والجرمانيوم Ge، خاصة، تطبيقات واسعة لكونهما أنصاف نواقل. تكون أبخرة المعادن النموذجية غالباً في الحالة الذرية بخلاف اللامعادن التي تكون في الحالة الغازية متعددة الذرات (باستثناء الغازات الخاملة أحادية الذرة).

الكيميائية

Some chemistry-based typical
differences between metals and nonmetals[8]
Aspect Metals Nonmetals
Electronegativity Lower than nonmetals,
with some exceptions[9] 		Moderate to very high
Chemical
bonding
Seldom form
covalent bonds 		Frequently form
covalent bonds
Metallic bonds (alloys)
between metals 		Covalent bonds
between nonmetals
Ionic bonds between nonmetals and metals
Oxidation
states 		Positive Negative or positive
الأكاسيد Basic in lower oxides;
increasingly acidic
in higher oxides 		Acidic;
never basic[10]
In aqueous
solution[11] 		Exist as cations Exist as anions
or oxyanions

إن ما يميز اللامعادن من الوجهة الكيماوية، هو ميل ذراتها إلى ضم إلكترون أو عدة إلكترونات متحولة إلى شوارد (أيونات) سالبة، كما في الأملاح. ولهذا كانت قيم كمونات تشردها ionization potential كبيرة (وكمون التشرد هو الطاقة اللازمة لنزع أضعف الإلكترونات ارتباطاً بالذرة وهي بالحالة الغازية وتحولها إلى شاردة موجبة وهي بالحالة الغازية). فكمون تشرد الذرة، مقدراً بالكيلوجول/مول، للآزوت (لامعدن) 1402، وللصوديوم (معدن نشيط)496، وللكلسيوم (معدن أقل فعالية من الصوديوم) 599، وللزرنيخ 947.

يتحدد ميل الذرة لضم الإلكترونات، كمياً، بقيمة كمون المسرى النظامي normal electrode potential الموافقة لها (بالفولط)، وتنظَّم هذه القيم في جدول، هو الجدول الكهرحركي[ر. الكيمياء الكهربائية]. فكمون مسرى السيزيوم (معدن) Cs+/Cs يساوي -2.923 فولط وكمون مسرى الصوديوم الأقل فعالية من السيزيوم Na+/Na-2.71 فولط، وكمون مسرى الفلور 2F-/F2 يساوي +2.87 فولط وكمون مسرى الهدروجين 2H+/H2 يساوي الصفر. فالمعادن الفعالة تقع فوق الهدروجين بالجدول الكهرحركي، ولها قيم كمون مسرى سالبة. والعناصر التي تقع تحت الهدروجين بالجدول الكهرحركي أقل كهرجابية من الهدروجين، ولها قيم كمون مسرى موجبة.

لايقل جدول الكهرسلبية electronegativity أهمية عن الجدول الكهرحركي، إذ يمكن بالاستناد إليه تعيين طبيعة الرابطة بين ذرتين في مركَّب. والكهرسلبية هي ميل الذرة لجذب إلكترونات نحوها في الجزيء المعتدل، فالكلور، على سبيل المثال، أكثر كهرسلبية من الهدروجين، وهذا يعني أن الزوج الإلكتروني بين H وCl في المركَّب HCl، هذا الزوج يمضي وقتاً أطول حول الذرة الأكثر كهرسلبية، مما يكسب الكلور في الجزيء شحنة سلبية جزئية(δ-) ، ويكون الجزيء قطبياً أي إن له قطبين الهدروجين شحنته (δ-) والكلور شحنته (δ-) ثنائي القطب. وقد وضع الأميركي بولنغ Pauling مقياساً كمياً لميل الذرات لضم الإلكترونات لها، ورتب القيم في جدول . فأشد العناصر كهرسلبية الفلور كهرسلبيته تساوي 4.0 وأشد العناصر كهرجابية السيزيوم وقيمة كهرسلبيته 0.7، ووضعت فيما بعد جداول أخرى للكهرسلبية، والقيم في الجداول جميعها متقاربة والاختلاف بينها بسيط.

وتزداد الكهرسلبية في الدور بالجدول الدوري من اليسار إلى اليمين، وهي تنقص بالانتقال من أعلى الفصيلة إلى أسفلها.

وتتفاوت اللامعادن بنشاطها الكيمياوي فيما بينها تفاوتاً كبيراً، فالفلور، على سبيل المثال، شديد الفعالية، فهو يتحد، تقريباً، وعلى نحو فوري مع كافة العناصر، في حين أن الهليوم خامل جداً لا يتفاعل مع أي من العناصر أو مركباتها، ويستفيد منه الكيميائيون لخموله بتوفير وسط غير فعّال (خامل) داخل بعض الأجهزة.

ولا يجوز اقتصار الاعتماد على الجدول الكهرحركي وجدول الكهرسلبية في استنتاج الخواص الكيمياوية للعنصر، إذ يجب أن تؤخذ بعين الاعتبار عوامل أخرى مثل حالة العنصر، ونقاوة الكواشف الكيمياوية، وطبيعة نواتج التفاعل التي قد تسبب سلبية العنصر، أو تضعف من نشاطه الكيمياوي بانحلالها البطيء.

ومما يجدر ذكره أن الروابط في أكاسيد اللامعادن، مثل الآزوت (النتروجين) والفسفور والكبريت وأكاسيد العناصر ذات الكهرسلبية المتوسطة أو العالية، هي روابط مشتركة. وأكاسيد اللامعادن النموذجية ذات خواص حمضي.

التاريخ والخلفية والتبويب

الاكتشاف

المقالة الرئيسية: Discovery of the nonmetals
a man kneels in one corner of a darkened room, before a glowing flask; some assistants are further behind him and discernible in the dark
The Alchemist Discovering Phosphorus (1771) by Joseph Wright. The alchemist is Hennig Brand; the glow emanates from the combustion of phosphorus inside the flask.

Most nonmetals were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries. Before then carbon, sulfur and antimony were known in antiquity; arsenic was discovered during the Middle Ages (by Albertus Magnus); and Hennig Brand isolated phosphorus from urine in 1669. Helium (1868) holds the distinction of being the only element not first discovered on Earth.[n 6] Radon is the most recently discovered nonmetal, being found only at the end of the 19th century.[13]

Chemistry- or physics-based techniques used in the isolation efforts were spectroscopy, fractional distillation, radiation detection, electrolysis, ore acidification, displacement reactions, combustion and heating; a few nonmetals occurred naturally as free elements

Of the noble gases, helium was detected via its yellow line in the coronal spectrum of the sun, and later by observing the bubbles escaping from uranite UO2 dissolved in acid. Neon through xenon were obtained via fractional distillation of air. Radon was first observed emanating from compounds of thorium, three years after Henri Becquerel's discovery of radiation in 1896.[14]

The nonmetal halogens were obtained from their halides via either electrolysis, adding an acid, or displacement. Some chemists died as a result of their experiments trying to isolate fluorine.[15]

Among the unclassified nonmetals, carbon was known (or produced) as charcoal, soot, graphite and diamond; nitrogen was observed in air from which oxygen had been removed; oxygen was obtained by heating mercurous oxide; phosphorus was liberated by heating ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate (Na(NH4)HPO4), as found in urine;[16] sulfur occurred naturally as a free element; and selenium[n 7] was detected as a residue in sulfuric acid.[18]

Most of the elements commonly recognized as metalloids were isolated by heating their oxides (boron, silicon, arsenic, tellurium) or a sulfide (germanium).[13] Antimony was known in its native form as well as being attainable by heating its sulfide.[19]


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أصل المفهوم

The distinction between metals and nonmetals arose, in a convoluted manner, from a crude recognition of different kinds of matter namely pure substances, mixtures, compounds and elements. Thus, matter could be divided into pure substances (such as salt, bicarb of soda, or sulfur) and mixtures (aqua regia, gunpowder, or bronze, for example) and pure substances eventually could be distinguished as compounds and elements.[20] "Metallic" elements then seemed to have broadly distinguishable attributes that other elements did not, such as their ability to conduct heat or for their "earths" (oxides) to form basic solutions in water, for example as occurred with quicklime (CaO).[21]

استخدام المصطلح

The term nonmetallic dates from as far back as 1566. In a medical treatise published that year, Loys de L’Aunay (a French doctor) mentioned the properties of plant substances from metallic and "non-metallic" lands.[22]

In early chemistry, Wilhelm Homberg (a German natural philosopher) referred to "non-metallic" sulfur in Des Essais de Chimie (1708).[23] He questioned the five-fold division of all matter into sulfur, mercury, salt, water and earth, as postulated by Étienne de Clave (fr) (1641) in New Philosophical Light of True Principles and Elements of Nature.[24] Homberg's approach represented "an important move toward the modern concept of an element".[25]

Lavoisier, in his "revolutionary"[26] 1789 work Traité élémentaire de chimie, published the first modern list of chemical elements in which he distinguished between gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths (heat resistant oxides).[27] In its first seventeen years, Lavoisier's work was republished in twenty-three editions in six languages, and "carried ... [his] new chemistry all over Europe and America."[28]

سمات مميـِّزة مقترحة

بعض الخصائص المستخدمة للتمييز بين
الفلزات واللا فلزات، مسرودة حسب النوع وتاريخ المصدر
الطبيعية
الكيميائية
المتعلقة بالإلكترونات

In 1809, Humphry Davy's discovery of sodium and potassium "annihilated"[51] the line of demarcation between metals and nonmetals. Before then metals had been distinguished on the basis of their ponderousness or relatively high densities.[52] Sodium and potassium, on the other hand, floated on water and yet were clearly metals on the basis of their chemical behaviour.[53]

From as early as 1811, different properties—physical, chemical, and electron related—have been used in attempts to refine the distinction between metals and nonmetals. The accompanying table sets out 22 such properties, by type and date order.

Probably the most well-known property is that the electrical conductivity of a metal increases when temperature falls whereas that of a non-metal rises.[41] However this scheme does not work for plutonium, carbon, arsenic and antimony. Plutonium, which is a metal, increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around –175 to +125 °C.[54] Carbon, despite being widely regarded as a nonmetal, likewise increases its conductivity when heated.[55] Arsenic and antimony are sometimes classified as nonmetals yet act similarly to carbon.[56]

Emsley noted that, "No single property ... can be used to classify all the elements as either metals or nonmetals."[57] Kneen et al. suggested that the nonmetals could be discerned once a [single] criterion for metallicity had been chosen, adding that, "many arbitrary classifications are possible, most of which, if chosen reasonably, would be similar but not necessarily identical."[58] Jones, in contrast, observed that "classes are usually defined by more than two attributes".[59]

Johnson suggested that physical properties can best indicate the metallic or nonmetallic properties of an element, with the proviso that other properties will be needed in ambiguous cases. More specifically, he observed that all gaseous or nonconducting elements are nonmetals; solid nonmetals metals are hard and brittle or soft and crumbly whereas metals are usually malleable and ductile; and nonmetal oxides are acidic.[60]

Once a basis for distinguishing between the "two great classes of elements"[61] is established, the nonmetals are found to be those lacking the properties of metals,[62] to greater or lesser degrees.[63] Some authors further divide the elements into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals although Odberg argues that anything not a metal is, on categorisation grounds, a nonmetal.[64]

تطوير صفوف فرعية

A basic taxonomy of nonmetals was set out in 1844, by Alphonse Dupasquier, a French doctor, pharmacist and chemist.[65] To facilitate the study of nonmetals, he wrote:[66]

They will be divided into four groups or sections, as in the following:
Organogens O, N, H, C
Sulphuroids S, Se, P
Chloroides F, Cl, Br, I
Boroids B, Si.

An echo of Dupasquier's fourfold classification is seen in the modern subclasses. The organogens and sulphuroids represent the set of unclassified nonmetals. Varying configurations of these seven nonmetals have been referred to as, for example, basic nonmetals;[67] biogens;[68] central nonmetals;[69] CHNOPS;[70] essential elements;[71] "nonmetals";[72][n 9] orphan nonmetals;[73] or redox nonmetals.[74] The chloroide nonmetals came to be independently referred to as halogens.[75] The boroid nonmetals expanded into the metalloids, starting from as early as 1864.[76] The noble gases, as a discrete grouping, were counted among the nonmetals from as early as 1900.[77]

مقارنة

Some properties of metals, and of metalloids, unclassified nonmetals, nonmetal halogens, and noble gases are summarized in the table.[n 10] Physical properties apply to elements in their most stable forms in ambient conditions, and are listed in loose order of ease of determination. Chemical properties are listed from general to descriptive, and then to specific. The dashed line around the metalloids denotes that, depending on the author, the elements involved may or may not be recognized as a distinct class or subclass of elements. Metals are included as a reference point.

Most properties show a left-to-right progression in metallic to nonmetallic character or average values. The periodic table can thus be indicatively divided into metals and nonmetals, with more or less distinct gradations seen among the nonmetals.[78]

Some cross-subclass properties
Physical property Metals
alkali, alkaline earth, lanthanide, actinide, transition, post-transition 		Metalloids
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium 		Unclassified nonmetals
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, selenium 		Nonmetal halogens
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine 		Noble gases
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon
Form and heft[79]
  • ◇ solid
  • ◇ low to higher density
  • ◇ all lighter than Fe
  • ◇ solid or gas
  • ◇ low density
  • ◇ H, N lighter than air[80]
  • ◇ solid, liquid or gas
  • ◇ low density
  • ◇ gas
  • ◇ low density
  • ◇ He, Ne lighter than air[81]
Appearance lustrous[82] lustrous[83]
  • ◇ lustrous: C, P, Se[84]
  • ◇ colorless: H, N, O[85]
  • ◇ colored: S[86]
  • ◇ colored: F, Cl, Br[87]
  • ◇ lustrous: I[2]
 colorless[88]
Elasticity mostly malleable and ductile[82] (Hg is liquid) brittle[83] C, black P, S, Se brittle; all four have less stable non-brittle forms[89][n 11] iodine is brittle[95] not applicable
Electrical conductivity good[n 12]
  • ◇ moderate: B, Si, Ge, Te
  • ◇ good: As, Sb[n 13]
  • ◇ poor: H, N, O, S
  • ◇ moderate: P, Se
  • ◇ good: C[n 14]
  • ◇ poor: F, Cl, Br
  • ◇ moderate: I[n 15]
 poor[n 16]
Electronic structure[100] metallic (Bi is a semimetal) semimetal (As, Sb) or semiconductor
  • ◇ semimetal: C
  • ◇ semiconductor: P, Se
  • ◇ insulator: H, N, O, S
 semiconductor (I) or insulator insulator
Chemical property Metals
alkali, alkaline earth, lanthanide, actinide, transition, post-transition 		Metalloids
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium 		Unclassified nonmetals
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, selenium 		Nonmetal halogens
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine 		Noble gases
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon
General chemical behavior
weakly nonmetallic[n 17] moderately nonmetallic[103] strongly nonmetallic[104]
  • ◇ inert to nonmetallic[105]
  • ◇ Rn shows some cationic behavior[106]
Oxides
  • ◇ basic; some amphoteric or acidic[107]
  • ◇ V; Mo, W; Al, In, Tl; Sn, Pb; Bi are glass formers[108]
  • ◇ ionic, polymeric, layer, chain, and molecular structures[109]
  • ◇ acidic (NO 2, N 2O 5, SO 3, SeO 3 strongly so)[114][115] or neutral (H2O, CO, NO, N2O)[n 19]
  • ◇ P, S, Se are glass formers;[108] CO2 forms a glass at 40 GPa[117]
  • ◇ mostly molecular[113]
  • ◇ C, P, S, Se have at least one polymeric form
  • ◇ acidic; ClO 2, Cl 2O 7, I 2O 5 strongly so[115][114]
  • ◇ no glass formers reported
  • ◇ molecular[113]
  • ◇ iodine has at least one polymeric form, I2O5[118]
  • ◇ metastable XeO3 is acidic;[119] stable XeO4 strongly so[120]
  • ◇ no glass formers reported
  • ◇ molecular[113]
  • ◇ XeO2 is polymeric[121]
Compounds with metals alloys[82] or intermetallic compounds[122] tend to form alloys or intermetallic compounds[123]
  • ◇ salt-like to covalent: H†, C, N, P, S, Se[4]
  • ◇ mainly ionic: O[124]
 mainly ionic[125] simple compounds in ambient conditions not known[n 20]
Ionization energy (kJ mol−1)‡
(data page)
  • ◇ low to high
  • ◇ 376 to 1,007
  • ◇ average 643
  • ◇ moderate
  • ◇ 762 to 947
  • ◇ average 833
  • ◇ moderate to high
  • ◇ 941 to 1,402
  • ◇ average 1,152
  • ◇ high
  • ◇ 1,008 to 1,681
  • ◇ average 1,270
  • ◇ high to very high
  • ◇ 1,037 to 2,372
  • ◇ average 1,589
Electronegativity (Pauling)[n 21]‡
(data page)
  • ◇ low to high
  • ◇ 0.79 to 2.54
  • ◇ average 1.5
  • ◇ moderate
  • ◇ 1.9 to 2.18
  • ◇ average 2.05
  • ◇ moderate to high
  • ◇ 2.19 to 3.44
  • ◇ average 2.65
  • ◇ high
  • ◇ 2.66 to 3.98
  • ◇ average 3.19
  • ◇ high (Rn) to very high
  • ◇ ca. 2.43 to 4.7
  • ◇ average 3.3
† Hydrogen can also form alloy-like hydrides[128]
‡ The labels low, moderate, high, and very high are arbitrarily based on the value spans listed in the table


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انظر أيضاً


ملاحظات

  1. ^ H; N; O, S; F, Cl, Br, I; He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn[1]
  2. ^ C; P; Se.[1] On the other hand, these three elements were counted as metalloids in a survey of 194 lists of metalloids, 16, 10, and 46 times respectively.[2]
  3. ^ B; Si, Ge; As, Sb; Te[3][4]
  4. ^ Al, Ga, In, Tl; Sn, Pb; Bi; Po; At
  5. ^ Hydrogen has historically been placed over one or more of lithium, boron,[5] carbon, or fluorine;[6] or over no group at all; or over all main groups simultaneously, and therefore may or may not be adjacent to other nonmetals.[7]
  6. ^ How helium acquired the -ium suffix is explained in the following passage by its discoverer, William Lockyer: "I took upon myself the responsibility of coining the word helium ... I did not know whether the substance ... was a metal like calcium or a gas like hydrogen, but I did know that it behaved like hydrogen [being found in the sun] and that hydrogen, as Dumas had stated, behaved as a metal".[12]
  7. ^ Berzelius, who discovered selenium, thought it had the properties of a metal, combined with those of sulfur.[17]
  8. ^ The Goldhammer-Herzfeld ratio is roughly equal to the cube of the atomic radius divided by the molar volume.[32] More specifically, it is the ratio of the force holding an individual atom's outer electrons in place with the forces on the same electrons from interactions between the atoms in the solid or liquid element. When the interatomic forces are greater than, or equal to, the atomic force, outer electron itinerancy is indicated and metallic behaviour is predicted. Otherwise nonmetallic behaviour is anticipated.[33]
  9. ^ The quote marks are not found in the source; they are used here to make it clear that the source employs the word nonmetals as a formal term for the subset of chemical elements in question, rather than applying to nonmetals generally.
  10. ^ See also Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals, which treats metalloids as a class of their own
  11. ^ Carbon as exfoliated (expanded) graphite,[90] and as carbon nanotube wire;[91] phosphorus as white phosphorus (soft as wax, pliable and can be cut with a knife, at room temperature);[92] sulfur as plastic sulfur;[93] and selenium as selenium wires[94]
  12. ^ Metals have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9×103 S•cm−1 for manganese to 6.3×105 for silver.[96]
  13. ^ Metalloids have electrical conductivity values of from 1.5×10−6 S•cm−1 for boron to 3.9×104 for arsenic.[97]
  14. ^ Unclassified nonmetals have electrical conductivity values of from ca. 1×10−18 S•cm−1 for the elemental gases to 3±4 in graphite.[98]
  15. ^ The nonmetal halogens have electrical conductivity values of from ca. 1×10−18 S•cm−1 for F and Cl to 1.7×10−8 S•cm−1 for iodine.[98][99]
  16. ^ The elemental gases have electrical conductivity values of ca. 1×10−18 S•cm−1.[98]
  17. ^ They always give "compounds less acidic in character than the corresponding compounds of the [typical] nonmetals"[83]
  18. ^ Arsenic trioxide reacts with sulfur trioxide, forming arsenic "sulfate" As2(SO4)3.[111]
  19. ^ CO and N2O are "formally the anhydrides of formic and hyponitrous acid, respectively: CO + H2O → H2CO2 (HCOOH, formic acid); N2O + H2O → H2N2O2 (hyponitrous acid)".[116]
  20. ^ Disodium helide (Na2He) is a compound of helium and sodium that is stable at high pressures above 113 GPa. Argon forms an alloy with nickel, at 140 GPa and close to 1,500 K however at this pressure argon is no longer a noble gas.[126]
  21. ^ Values for the noble gases are from Rahm, Zeng and Hoffmann.[127]

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الهامش

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