طاقة مائية

هذا المقال هو عن the general concept of hydropower. إذا كنت تريد the use of hydropower for electricity generation، انظر hydroelectricity.

الطاقة المائية Hydropower هي الطاقة المستمدة من حركة المياه المستمرة والتي لا يمكن ان تنفد. وهي من أهم مصادر الطاقة المتجددة، وبمعنى آخر هي الاستفادة من حركة المياه لأغراض مفيدة. فقد كان استخدام الطاقة المائية قبل أنتشار توفر الطاقة الكهربائية التجارية، وذلك في الري وطحن الحبوب، وصناعة النسيج، فضلا عن تشغيل المناشير.

تم استغلال طاقة المياه لـقرون طويلة. ففي امبراطورية روما، كانت الطاقة المائية تستخدم في مطاحن الدقيق وإنتاج الحبوب ، كما في الصين وبقية بلدان الشرق الاقصى، وتستخدم حركة الماء الهيدروليكية على تحريك عجلة لضخ المياه في قنوات الري وهو ما يعرف يالنواعير.

وفي الثلاثينات من القرن الثامن عشر ، في ذروة بناء القناة المائية استخدمت المياه للنقل الشاقولي صعودا ونزولا عبر التلال باستخدام السكك الحديدية.

كان نقل الطاقة الميكانيكية مباشرة يتطلب وجود الصناعات التي تستخدم الطاقة المائية قرب شلال. وخاصة خلال النصف الأخير من القرن التاسع عشر، واليوم يعتبر أهم استخدامات الطاقة المائية هو توليد الطاقة الكهربائية، مما يوفر الطاقة المنخفضة التكلفة حتى لو استخدمت في الأماكن البعيدة من المجرى المائي.

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 حساب كمية الطاقة المتاحة

The Three Gorges Dam in China; the hydroelectric dam is the world's largest power station by installed capacity.

A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available power. Power is a function of the hydraulic head and volumetric flow rate. The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head.

The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate and density of water, the height of fall, and the local acceleration due to gravity:

${\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=-\eta \ {\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h=-\eta \ \rho {\dot {V}}\ g\ \Delta h$

حيث

• ${\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}$ (work flow rate out) is the useful power output (SI unit: watts)
• $\eta$ ("eta") is the efficiency of the turbine (dimensionless)
• ${\dot {m}}$ is the mass flow rate (SI unit: kilograms per second)
• $\rho$ ("rho") is the density of water (SI unit: kilograms per cubic metre)
• ${\dot {V}}$ is the volumetric flow rate (SI unit: cubic metres per second)
• $g$ is the acceleration due to gravity (SI unit: metres per second per second)
• $\Delta h$ ("Delta h") is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet (SI unit: metres)

To illustrate, the power output of a turbine that is 85% efficient, with a flow rate of 80 cubic metres per second (2800 cubic feet per second) and a head of 145 metres (476 feet), is 97 megawatts:

${\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=0.85\times 1000\ ({\text{kg}}/{\text{m}}^{3})\times 80\ ({\text{m}}^{3}/{\text{s}})\times 9.81\ ({\text{m}}/{\text{s}}^{2})\times 145\ {\text{m}}=97\times 10^{6}\ ({\text{kg}}\ {\text{m}}^{2}/{\text{s}}^{3})=97\ {\text{MW}}$

Operators of hydroelectric stations compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency. Procedures and definitions for calculation of efficiency are given in test codes such as ASME PTC 18 and IEC 60041. Field testing of turbines is used to validate the manufacturer's efficiency guarantee. Detailed calculation of the efficiency of a hydropower turbine accounts for the head lost due to flow friction in the power canal or penstock, rise in tailwater level due to flow, the location of the station and effect of varying gravity, the air temperature and barometric pressure, the density of the water at ambient temperature, and the relative altitudes of the forebay and tailbay. For precise calculations, errors due to rounding and the number of significant digits of constants must be considered.

Some hydropower systems such as water wheels can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the kinetic energy of the flowing water. Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy. The flow in a stream can vary widely from season to season. The development of a hydropower site requires analysis of flow records, sometimes spanning decades, to assess the reliable annual energy supply. Dams and reservoirs provide a more dependable source of power by smoothing seasonal changes in water flow. However, reservoirs have a significant environmental impact, as does alteration of naturally occurring streamflow. Dam design must account for the worst-case, "probable maximum flood" that can be expected at the site; a spillway is often included to route flood flows around the dam. A computer model of the hydraulic basin and rainfall and snowfall records are used to predict the maximum flood.

 العيوب والمحدودية

المقالة الرئيسية: Hydroelectricity § Disadvantages, and Renewable energy debate § Hydroelectricity

Some disadvantages of hydropower have been identified. Dam failures can have catastrophic effects, including loss of life, property and pollution of land.

Dams and reservoirs can have major negative impacts on river ecosystems such as preventing some animals traveling upstream, cooling and de-oxygenating of water released downstream, and loss of nutrients due to settling of particulates. River sediment builds river deltas and dams prevent them from restoring what is lost from erosion. Furthermore, studies found that the construction of dams and reservoirs can result in habitat loss for some aquatic species.

A hydropower scheme which harnesses the power of the water which pours down from the Brecon Beacons mountains, Wales; 2017

Large and deep dam and reservoir plants cover large areas of land which causes greenhouse gas emissions from underwater rotting vegetation. Furthermore, although at lower levels than other renewable energy sources,^{[بحاجة لمصدر]} it was found that hydropower produces methane equivalent to almost a billion tonnes of CO2 greenhouse gas a year. This occurs when organic matters accumulate at the bottom of the reservoir because of the deoxygenation of water which triggers anaerobic digestion.

People who live near a hydro plant site are displaced during construction or when reservoir banks become unstable. Another potential disadvantage is cultural or religious sites may block construction.

 التطبيقات

A shishi-odoshi powered by falling water breaks the quietness of a Japanese garden with the sound of a bamboo rocker arm hitting a rock.

 الطاقة الميكانيكية

 طواحين الماء

This section is an excerpt from طاحونة مائية.[تحرير]

Watermill of Braine-le-Château, Belgium (12th century).

Interior of the Lyme Regis watermill, UK (14th century).

الطاحونة المائيةWatermill تبيّن تاريخياً أن منطقة حوض البحر المتوسط قد شهدت استخدام الطاحونة المائية في القرن الأول قبل الميلاد، وكان هناك نوعان من هذه الطواحين. ولا يزال النوع الأول قيد التشغيل حتى يومنا هذا في كل من إسكندنافيا والبلقان وبلدان الشرق الأدنى. وفيها يتم تركيب العجلة المائية أفقياً في أسفل الطاحونة بحيث يدور الطرف السفلي لمحورها الرأسي المصنوع من الحديد، داخل محمل من الحجارة الثقيلة (الصخرية منها). ويمر الطرف العلوي للمحور عبر فتحة في حجر الرحى السفلي ويتصل مباشرة بحجر الرحى العلوي، وبذلك تحتاج إلى مسننات لنقل الحركة. وتكون سرعة دوران حجر الرحى مماثلة لسرعة دوران العجلة المائية، وتدار الأخيرة بفعل الماء الهابط من علوّ من مجرى مياه جارية باستمرار.

Model of a Roman water-powered grain-mill described by Vitruvius. The millstone (upper floor) is powered by a undershot waterwheel by the way of a gear mechanism (lower floor)

ومنها اتخذ مبدأ العنفة الحديثة لتوليد الكهرباء من الماء. ويكون النوع الثاني من الطواحين المائية مماثلاً حيث يكون دفع الماء في الأعلى بدلاً من الأسفل. فشاع استخدام الطواحين المائية كثيراً في الوديان وقرب الأنهر فبلغت في أوروبا نحو 5624 طاحونة حوالي العام 1000م. ومع اختراع العجلة المائية والصناعات الحديثة ومن ثم المحركات تضاءل استخدام الطواحين المائية إذا لم نقل إنه قد انقرض.

Scheme of the Roman Hierapolis sawmill, the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.

Roman turbine mill at Chemtou, Tunisia. The tangential water inflow of the millrace made the horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like a true turbine, the earliest known.

First Appearance of Various Industrial Mills in Medieval Europe, AD 770-1443
Type of mill	Date	Country
Malt mill	770	France
Fulling mill	1080	France
Tanning mill	ca. 1134	France
Forge mill	ca. 1200	England, France
Tool-sharpening mill	1203	France
Hemp mill	1209	France
Bellows	1269, 1283	Slovakia, France
Paper mill	1282	Spain
Sawmill	ca. 1300	France
Ore-crushing mill	1317	Germany
Blast furnace	1384	France
Cutting and slitting mill	1443	France

 الهواء المضغوط

انظر أيضاً: Trompe

• النواعير إنگليزية: Waterwheels التي استخدمت لمئات من السنين في المطاحن وتسيير الآلات...الخ.
• الطاقة الكهرمائية إنگليزية: Hydroelectric energy، والمقصود هنا السدود والمنشآت النهرية التي تنتج الكهرباء.
• طاقة المد و الجزر إنگليزية: Tidal power، وهي استغلال طاقة المد والجزر في الاتجاه الأفقي.
• طاقة التيار المدي إنگليزية: Tidal stream power وهي استغلال طاقة المد والجزر في الاتجاه العمودي.
• طاقة الأمواج إنگليزية: Wave power التي تستخدم الطاقة على شكل موجات.

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 History

 Ancient history

A water piston from the Nongshu by Wang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333)

Saint Anthony Falls, United States; hydropower was used here to mill flour.

Directly water-powered ore mill, late nineteenth century

Evidence suggests that the fundamentals of hydropower date to ancient Greek civilization. Other evidence indicates that the waterwheel independently emerged in China around the same period. Evidence of water wheels and watermills date to the ancient Near East in the 4th century BC.^:14 Moreover, evidence indicates the use of hydropower using irrigation machines to ancient civilizations such as Sumer and Babylonia. Studies suggest that the water wheel was the initial form of water power and it was driven by either humans or animals.

In the Roman Empire, water-powered mills were described by Vitruvius by the first century BC. The Barbegal mill, located in modern-day France, had 16 water wheels processing up to 28 tons of grain per day. Roman waterwheels were also used for sawing marble such as the Hierapolis sawmill of the late 3rd century AD. Such sawmills had a waterwheel that drove two crank-and-connecting rods to power two saws. It also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman sawmills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa respectively. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman watermills converted the rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades.

Water-powered trip hammers and bellows in China, during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), were initially thought to be powered by water scoops.^:26–30 However, some historians suggested that they were powered by waterwheels. This is since it was theorized that water scoops would not have had the motive force to operate their blast furnace bellows. Many texts describe the Hun waterwheel; some of the earliest ones are the Jijiupian dictionary of 40 BC, Yang Xiong's text known as the Fangyan of 15 BC, as well as Xin Lun, written by Huan Tan about 20 AD. It was also during this time that the engineer Du Shi (c. AD 31) applied the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron.

Ancient Indian texts dating back to the 4th century BC refer to the term cakkavattaka (turning wheel), which commentaries explain as arahatta-ghati-yanta (machine with wheel-pots attached), however whether this is water or hand powered is disputed by scholars India received Roman water mills and baths in the early 4th century AD when a certain according to Greek sources. Dams, spillways, reservoirs, channels, and water balance would develop in India during the Mauryan, Gupta and Chola empires.

Another example of the early use of hydropower is seen in hushing, a historic method of mining that uses flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins. The method was first used at the Dolaucothi Gold Mines in Wales from 75 AD onwards. This method was further developed in Spain in mines such as Las Médulas. Hushing was also widely used in Britain in the Medieval and later periods to extract lead and tin ores. It later evolved into hydraulic mining when used during the California Gold Rush in the 19th century.

The Islamic Empire spanned a large region, mainly in Asia and Africa, along with other surrounding areas. During the Islamic Golden Age and the Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th centuries), hydropower was widely used and developed. Early uses of tidal power emerged along with large hydraulic factory complexes. A wide range of water-powered industrial mills were used in the region including fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and tide mills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic Empire had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.^:10 Muslim engineers also used water turbines while employing gears in watermills and water-raising machines. They also pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Islamic irriguation techniques including Persian Wheels would be introduced to India, and would be combined with local methods, during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.

Furthermore, in his book, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, the Muslim mechanical engineer, Al-Jazari (1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices. Many of these devices were water-powered, including clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools, where three of them are animal-powered and one can be powered by animal or water. Moreover, they included an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered shadoof (a crane-like irrigation tool), and a reciprocating device with hinged valves.

Benoît Fourneyron, the French engineer who developed the first hydropower turbine

 19th century

In the 19th century, French engineer Benoît Fourneyron developed the first hydropower turbine. This device was implemented in the commercial plant of Niagara Falls in 1895 and it is still operating. In the early 20th century, English engineer William Armstrong built and operated the first private electrical power station which was located in his house in Cragside in Northumberland, England. In 1753, the French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published his book, Architecture Hydraulique, which described vertical-axis and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines.

The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main power source for new inventions such as Richard Arkwright's water frame. Although water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small blast furnaces (e.g. the Dyfi Furnace) and gristmills, such as those built at Saint Anthony Falls, which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the Mississippi River.

Technological advances moved the open water wheel into an enclosed turbine or water motor. In 1848, the British-American engineer James B. Francis, head engineer of Lowell's Locks and Canals company, improved on these designs to create a turbine with 90% efficiency. He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design. His mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed the confident design of high-efficiency turbines to exactly match a site's specific flow conditions. The Francis reaction turbine is still in use. In the 1870s, deriving from uses in the California mining industry, Lester Allan Pelton developed the high-efficiency Pelton wheel impulse turbine, which used hydropower from the high head streams characteristic of the Sierra Nevada.

 20th century

The modern history of hydropower begins in the 1900s, with large dams built not simply to power neighboring mills or factories but provide extensive electricity for increasingly distant groups of people. Competition drove much of the global hydroelectric craze: Europe competed amongst itself to electrify first, and the United States' hydroelectric plants in Niagara Falls and the Sierra Nevada inspired bigger and bolder creations across the globe. American and USSR financers and hydropower experts also spread the gospel of dams and hydroelectricity across the globe during the Cold War, contributing to projects such as the Three Gorges Dam and the Aswan High Dam. Feeding desire for large scale electrification with water inherently required large dams across powerful rivers, which impacted public and private interests downstream and in flood zones. Inevitably smaller communities and marginalized groups suffered. They were unable to successfully resist companies flooding them out of their homes or blocking traditional salmon passages. The stagnant water created by hydroelectric dams provides breeding ground for pests and pathogens, leading to local epidemics. However, in some cases, a mutual need for hydropower could lead to cooperation between otherwise adversarial nations.

Hydropower technology and attitude began to shift in the second half of the 20th century. While countries had largely abandoned their small hydropower systems by the 1930s, the smaller hydropower plants began to make a comeback in the 1970s, boosted by government subsidies and a push for more independent energy producers. Some politicians who once advocated for large hydropower projects in the first half of the 20th century began to speak out against them, and citizen groups organizing against dam projects increased.

In the 1980s and 90s the international anti-dam movement had made finding government or private investors for new large hydropower projects incredibly difficult, and given rise to NGOs devoted to fighting dams. Additionally, while the cost of other energy sources fell, the cost of building new hydroelectric dams increased 4% annually between 1965 and 1990, due both to the increasing costs of construction and to the decrease in high quality building sites. In the 1990s, only 18% of the world's electricity came from hydropower. Tidal power production also emerged in the 1960s as a burgeoning alternative hydropower system, though still has not taken hold as a strong energy contender.

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 United States

Especially at the start of the American hydropower experiment, engineers and politicians began major hydroelectricity projects to solve a problem of 'wasted potential' rather than to power a population that needed the electricity. When the Niagara Falls Power Company began looking into damming Niagara, the first major hydroelectric project in the United States, in the 1890s they struggled to transport electricity from the falls far enough away to actually reach enough people and justify installation. The project succeeded in large part due to Nikola Tesla's invention of the alternating current motor. On the other side of the country, San Francisco engineers, the Sierra Club, and the federal government fought over acceptable use of the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Despite ostensible protection within a national park, city engineers successfully won the rights to both water and power in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 1913. After their victory they delivered Hetch Hetchy hydropower and water to San Francisco a decade later and at twice the promised cost, selling power to PG&E which resold to San Francisco residents at a profit.

The American West, with its mountain rivers and lack of coal, turned to hydropower early and often, especially along the Columbia River and its tributaries. The Bureau of Reclamation built the Hoover Dam in 1931, symbolically linking the job creation and economic growth priorities of the New Deal. The federal government quickly followed Hoover with the Shasta Dam and Grand Coulee Dam. Power demand in Oregon did not justify damming the Columbia until WWI revealed the weaknesses of a coal-based energy economy. The federal government then began prioritizing interconnected power—and lots of it. Electricity from all three dams poured into war production during WWII.

After the war, the Grand Coulee Dam and accompanying hydroelectric projects electrified almost all of the rural Columbia Basin, but failed to improve the lives of those living and farming there the way its boosters had promised and also damaged the river ecosystem and migrating salmon populations. In the 1940s as well, the federal government took advantage of the sheer amount of unused power and flowing water from the Grand Coulee to build a nuclear site placed on the banks of the Columbia. The nuclear site leaked radioactive matter into the river, contaminating the entire area.

Post-WWII Americans, especially engineers from the Tennessee Valley Authority, refocused from simply building domestic dams to promoting hydropower abroad. While domestic dam building continued well into the 1970s, with the Reclamation Bureau and Army Corps of Engineers building more than 150 new dams across the American West, organized opposition to hydroelectric dams sparked up in the 1950s and 60s based on environmental concerns. Environmental movements successfully shut down proposed hydropower dams in Dinosaur National Monument and the Grand Canyon, and gained more hydropower-fighting tools with 1970s environmental legislation. As nuclear and fossil fuels grew in the 70s and 80s and environmental activists push for river restoration, hydropower gradually faded in American importance.

 أفريقيا

Foreign powers and IGOs have frequently used hydropower projects in Africa as a tool to interfere in the economic development of African countries, such as the World Bank with the Kariba and Akosombo Dams, and the Soviet Union with the Aswan Dam. The Nile River especially has borne the consequences of countries both along the Nile and distant foreign actors using the river to expand their economic power or national force. After the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, the British worked with Egypt to construct the first Aswan Dam, which they heightened in 1912 and 1934 to try to hold back the Nile floods. Egyptian engineer Adriano Daninos developed a plan for the Aswan High Dam, inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority's multipurpose dam.

When Gamal Abdel Nasser took power in the 1950s, his government decided to undertake the High Dam project, publicizing it as an economic development project. After American refusal to help fund the dam, and anti-British sentiment in Egypt and British interests in neighboring Sudan combined to make the United Kingdom pull out as well, the Soviet Union funded the Aswan High Dam. Between 1977 and 1990 the dam's turbines generated one third of Egypt's electricity. The building of the Aswan Dam triggered a dispute between Sudan and Egypt over the sharing of the Nile, especially since the dam flooded part of Sudan and decreased the volume of water available to them. Ethiopia, also located on the Nile, took advantage of the Cold War tensions to request assistance from the United States for their own irrigation and hydropower investments in the 1960s. While progress stalled due to the coup d'état of 1974 and following 17-year-long Ethiopian Civil War Ethiopia began construction on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011.

Beyond the Nile, hydroelectric projects cover the rivers and lakes of Africa. The Inga powerplant on the Congo River had been discussed since Belgian colonization in the late 19th century, and was successfully built after independence. Mobutu's government failed to regularly maintain the plants and their capacity declined until the 1995 formation of the Southern African Power Pool created a multi-national power grid and plant maintenance program. States with an abundance of hydropower, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ghana, frequently sell excess power to neighboring countries. Foreign actors such as Chinese hydropower companies have proposed a significant amount of new hydropower projects in Africa, and already funded and consulted on many others in countries like Mozambique and Ghana.

Small hydropower also played an important role in early 20th century electrification across Africa. In South Africa, small turbines powered gold mines and the first electric railway in the 1890s, and Zimbabwean farmers installed small hydropower stations in the 1930s. While interest faded as national grids improved in the second half of the century, 21st century national governments in countries including South Africa and Mozambique, as well as NGOs serving countries like Zimbabwe, have begun re-exploring small-scale hydropower to diversify power sources and improve rural electrification.

 أوروبا

In the early 20th century, two major factors motivated the expansion of hydropower in Europe: in the northern countries of Norway and Sweden high rainfall and mountains proved exceptional resources for abundant hydropower, and in the south coal shortages pushed governments and utility companies to seek alternative power sources.

Early on, Switzerland dammed the Alpine rivers and the Swiss Rhine, creating, along with Italy and Scandinavia, a Southern Europe hydropower race. In Italy's Po Valley, the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower. 12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign. These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain. Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force. However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI.

Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century. Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s. The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar Urft, Mohne, and Eder dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation. However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south. Bavaria even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the Walchensee in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.

Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern 'coal barons', although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower. Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower. However, conflict accompanied the dam building and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned.

 شاهد أيضا

• طاقة المد و الجزر
• طاقة متجددة
• طاقة ريحية
• طاقة شمسية
• طاقة حيوية
• كتلة حيوية

 المراجع الخارجية

• International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) hydropower portal with links to numerous organisations related to hydropower worldwide
• Practical Action (ITDG) a UK charity developing micro-hydro power and giving extensive technical documentation.
• National Hydropower Association
• British Hydropower Association
• microhydropower.net
• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Hydropower
• Hydro Quebec
• The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Federal Agency that regulates more than 1500 hydropower dams in the United States.
• Hydropower Reform Coalition A U.S.-based coalition of more than 130 national, state, and local conservation and recreation groups that seek to protect and restore rivers affected by hydropower dams.
• Small Scale Hydro Power