النزاع التركي الكردي (1978–الآن)

النزاع التركي الكردي (1978–الآن)
جزء من التمردات الكردية
PKK-Conflict-de.png
خريطة مواضعية، نظرة عامة للنزاع التركي-الكردي
التاريخc. 27 نوفمبر 1978–الآن
(45 years, 11 months, 3 weeks and 4 days)
الموقع
شرق وجنوب شرق تركيا، وانتقل إلى شمال العراق وشمال سوريا.
الوضع

مستمر:

المتحاربون

تركيا تركيا

قوات أخرى:

Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK)

YDG-H:

HBDH

Kurdistan Freedom Hawks
القادة والزعماء

القادة الحاليون
تركيا رجب طيب أردوغان
تركيا بن علي يلدرم
تركيا خلوصي أكار

القادة الحاليون
Murat Karayılan
Bahoz Erdal
Cemil Bayık
Mustafa Karasu
Duran Kalkan
Ali Haydar Kaytan (tr)
Zübeyir Aydar
Haji Ahmadi[32]

القوى
القوات المسلحة التركية: 639,551:[33]
Gendarmerie: 148,700[34]
الشرطة: 225,000
حرس القرى: 65,000[35]
تركيا Total: 948,550
(ليس لهم جميعاً تدخل مباشر في النزاع)

حزب العمال الكردستاني: 4,000–32,800[36][37]

PJAK: 1,000[38]–3,000[39]
TAK: A few dozen[40]
Total: ≈5,000–32,800[37]
الضحايا والخسائر

5,347 جندي، 283 شرطي و1,466 حارس قروي قتيل، 95 أسير (24 currently held)[41][42]
الإجمالي: 7,230 قتيل و21,128 مصاب
(الادعاءات التركية)[43][44]

الإجمالي: 12,522 قتيل و33,788 مصاب[45][46][47][48]

(حسب ادعاءات حزب العمال الكردستاني)		 الإجمالي: 33,542-45,668+ قتيل و19,698+ مصاب
(الادعاءات التركية)[49][50][51]

إجمالي القتلى: 50,000–55,000[52][53][54]

الضحايا المدنيون:
6,741 قتيل و14,257 مصاب (الادعاءات التركية)[44]
5,000 killed (until 2000; 3,438 by the Turkish government & 1,205 by the PKK; independent research and NGOs)[55]
18,000–20,000 كردي تم إعدامهم و2,400–4,000+ قرية دمرتها الحكومة التركية (تقارير حقوق إنسان مستقلة وتقديرات أخرى)[56][57][58][59]

3,000,000+ displaced[60]
Turkish Hezbollah also known as Kurdish Hezbollah or just Hizbullah in Turkey, is a mainly Sunni Islamist militant organization, active against the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and the Government of Turkey.[61][62][63][64][65]

النزاع التركي الكردي[15]، هو نزاع مسلح بين جمهورية تركيا وجماعات كردية متمردة مختلفة،[66] التي تطالب بالانفصال عن تركيا لتأسيس دولة كردستان المستقلة]]،[40][67] أو الحصول على حكم ذاتي[68][69] والمزيد من الحقوق السياسية والثقافية للأكراد داخل الجمهورية التركية.[70] الجماعة المتمردة الرئيسية هي حزب العمال الكردستاني[71] (بالكردية: Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan). بالرغم من قيام المتمردين بهجمات في الكثير من مناطق تركيا،[72] إلا أن التمرد يتركز بصفة أساسية في جنوب شرق تركيا.[73] وجود حزب العمال الكردستاني في منطقة كردستان بالعراق والتي يقومون بشن الهجمات من داخلها، أسفر عن قيام القوات المسلحة التركية بهجمات جوية وبرية ومدفعية في تلك المنطقة.[74][75] كلف النزاع الاقتصاد التركي 300-400 بليون دولار، معظمها خسائر عسكرية. كما أثر النزاع على السياحة في تركيا.[76][77][78]


The group was founded in 1978 in the village of Fis (near Lice) by a group of Kurdish students led by Abdullah Öcalan.[79] The initial reason given by the PKK for this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey.[80][81] By then, the use of Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names were banned in Kurdish-inhabited areas.[82] In an attempt to deny their existence, the Turkish government categorized Kurds as "Mountain Turks" until 1991.[82][83][84][85] The words "Kurds", "Kurdistan", or "Kurdish" were officially banned by the Turkish government.[86][87] Following the military coup of 1980, the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life.[88] Many who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned.[89] The PKK was then formed, as part of a growing discontent over the suppression of Turkey's ethnic Kurds, in an effort to establish linguistic, cultural, and political rights for Turkey's ethnic Kurdish minority.[90]

The full-scale insurgency, however, did not begin until 15 August 1984, when the PKK announced a Kurdish uprising. Since the conflict began, more than 40,000 have died, most of whom were Kurdish civilians.[91] The European Court of Human Rights has condemned Turkey for thousands of human rights abuses.[92][93] Many judgments are related to systematic executions of Kurdish civilians,[94] torturing,[95] forced displacements,[96] destroyed villages,[97][98][99] arbitrary arrests,[100] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists, activists and politicians.[101][102][103]

The first insurgency lasted until 1 September 1999,[67][104] when the PKK declared a unilateral ceasefire. The armed conflict was later resumed on 1 June 2004, when the PKK declared an end to its ceasefire.[105][106] Since summer 2011, the conflict has become increasingly violent with resumption of large-scale hostilities.[78] In 2013 the Turkish Government and the jailed PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan started talks. On 21 March 2013, Öcalan announced the "end of armed struggle" and a ceasefire with peace talks.[31][107] On July 25, 2015, the PKK finally cancelled their 2013 ceasefire after a year of tension due to various events, including the Turks bombing PKK positions in Iraq,[108] in the midst of the Kurds' battle against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. With the resumption of violence, hundreds of ethnic Kurdish civilians have been killed and numerous human rights violations have occurred including torture, rape and widespread destruction of property.[109][110] Turkish authorities have destroyed substantial parts of many Kurdish inhabited cities including Diyarbakır, Şırnak, Mardin, Cizre, Nusaybin, and Yüksekova.[110][111] Following mainly secret negotiations, a largely successful ceasefire was put in place by AKP and PKK. The ceasefire broke in summer 2015 due to political tensions.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

خلفية

مقال رئيسيs: التمردات الكردية في تركيا, الأكراد في تركيا, and تاريخ حزب العمال الكردستاني


التاريخ

مقال رئيسي: خط زمني لنزاع تركيا وحزب العمال الكردستاني

البدايات

التمرد الأول

1984–93

OHAL region—defining areas in Turkey under a state of emergency—in red with neighbouring provinces in orange, 1987–2002


1993–1999

وقف إطلاق النار أحادي الجانب

KADEK flag
KONGRA-GEL flag


التمرد الثاني

مناصرو حزب العمال الكردستاني في لندن، أبريل 2003.
مظاهرة ضد حزب العمال الكردستاني في إسطنبول، 22 أكتوبر 2007.


جهود حل النزاع

متمردو حزب العمال الكردستاني يحتفلون بعيد النيروز في قنديل، 23 مارس، 2014.


التصعيد

مقال رئيسي: الشغب الكردي في تركيا 2014

2015–الآن

مقال رئيسي: النزاع التركي الكردي (2015–الآن)
انظر أيضاً: التدخل العسكري التركي في الحرب الأهلية السورية


سرهلدان

مقال رئيسي: سرهلدان


الحركة السياسية الكردية

الاسم الاختصار الزعيم النشاط
حزب عمال الشعب HEP Ahmet Fehmi Işıklar 1990–1993
الحزب الديمقراطي DEP Yaşar Kaya 1993–1994
حزب ديمقرطية الشعب HADEP Murat Bozlak 1994–2003
حزب الشعب الديمقراطي DEHAP Tuncer Bakırhan 1997–2005
حركة المجتمع الديمقراطي DTH Leyla Zana 2005
الحزب الاجتماعي الديمقراطي DTP Ahmet Türk 2005–2009
حزب السلام والديمقراطية BDP Gültan Kışanak, Selahattin Demirtaş 2008–2014
حزب المناطق الديمقراطية DBP Emine Ayna, Kamûran Yüksek 2014–present
حزب الديمقراطية الشعبية HDP Figen Yüksekdağ, Selahattin Demirtaş 2012–الآن


مناصرو حزب الديمقراطية الشعبية يحتلفون بنتائج حزبهم في الانتخابات، إسطنبول، 8 يونيو 2015.



. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الخسائر


التأثير الديمغرافي

للمزيد من المعلومات: القرى الكردية المهجرة في تركيا


انتهاكات حقوق الإنسان

للمزيد من المعلومات: حقوق الأكراد في تركيا and القرى الكردية المهجرة في تركيا


انتهاكات من الجانب التركي

انتهاكات من حزب العمال الكردستاني

انظر أيضاً

الهوامش

  • ^note The Turkey–PKK conflict is also known as the Kurdish conflict,[112][113][114][115][116][117] the Kurdish question,[118] the Kurdish insurgency,[119][120][121][122][123][124] the Kurdish rebellion,[125][126][127][128][129] the Kurdish–Turkish conflict,[130] or PKK-terrorism[67][131][132] as well as the latest Kurdish uprising[133] or as a civil war.[134][135][136][137][138]
  • ^note According to official figures, in the period during and after the coup, military agencies collected files on over 2 million people, 650,000 of which were detained, 230,000 of which were put on trial under martial law. Prosecutors demanded the death penalty against over 7 thousand of them, of which 517 were sentenced to death and fifty were actually hanged. Some 400,000 people were denied passports and 30,000 lost their jobs after the new regime classified them as dangerous. 14,000 people were stripped of their Turkish citizenship and 30,000 fled the country as asylum seekers after the coup. Aside from the fifty people that were hanged, some 366 people died under suspicious circumstances (classified as accidents at the time), 171 were tortured to death in prison, 43 were claimed to have committed suicide in prison and 16 were shot for attempting to escape.[139]
  • ^note According to an article published in Defence and Peace Economics by Mete Feridun of University of Greenwich titled "Fighting terrorism: Are military measures effective? Empirical evidence from Turkey", military anti-terrorism measures alone are not sufficient to prevent PKK terrorism in Turkey.[140]
  • ^note A recent article published in Applied Research in Quality of Life by Mete Feridun of University of Greenwich investigates the impact of education and poverty on terrorism in Turkey using econometric techniques.[141]

المصادر

  1. ^ "Turkey's Kurdish tribes call PKK to leave country".
  2. ^ "Kurdish people unite against terror: Tribe of 65,000 pledge to stand up against PKK".
  3. ^ "Erdogan's new Kurdish allies – Kurdish Institute".
  4. ^ MacDonald, Alex (14 September 2015). "Increasing tensions see resurgence of Turkey's far-right street movements". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  5. ^ "Kurds demand answers after battles in Cizre". al-monitor.com. 18 September 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  6. ^ "Turkish Government-Associated Death Squads". thesop.org. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  7. ^ Metelits, Claire, Inside Insurgency: Violence, Civilians, and Revolutionary Group Behavior, (New York University Press, 2010), 154–155.
  8. ^ "The Deep State".
  9. ^ Studies, Karabekir Akkoyunlu Assistant Professor of Modern Turkey at the Centre for Southeast European; Graz, University of (25 October 2015). "Old Demons in New Faces? The 'Deep State' Meets Erdoğan's 'New Turkey'".
  10. ^ "PJAK attacks along Iran borders decline". PressTV. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)[محل شك]
  11. ^ أ ب ت ث Faucompret, Erik; Konings, Jozef (2008). Turkish Accession to the EU: Satisfying the Copenhagen Criteria. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. p. 168. ISBN 9780203928967. The Turkish establishment considered the Kurds' demand for the recognition of their identity a threat to the territorial integrity of the state, the more so because the PKK was supported by countries hostile to Turkey: Soviet Union, Greece, Cyprus, Iran and especially Syria. Syria hosted the organization and its leader for twenty years, and it provided training facilities in the Beka'a Valley of Syrian-controlled northern Lebanon.
  12. ^ "Ocalan: Greeks supplied Kurdish rebels". BBC News. 2 June 1999. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  13. ^ "Turkey says Greece supports PKK". Hürriyet Daily News. 1 July 1999. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  14. ^ Bilgin, Fevzi; Sarihan. Ali (2013). Understanding Turkey's Kurdish Question. Lexington Books. p. 96. ISBN 9780739184035. The USSR, and then Russia, also supported the PKK for many years.
  15. ^ "Russian newspaper: Russia provided money for PKK". Hurriyet Daily News. 28 February 2000. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
  16. ^ "Turkey devises action plan to dry up PKK's foreign support". Today's Zaman. 30 September 2010. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Shapir, Yiftah (1998). The Middle East Military Balance, 1996. Jerusalem, Israel: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University. p. 114. ISBN 9780231108928. The PKK was originally established as a Marxist party, with ties to the Soviet Union
  18. ^ Phillips, David L. (2009). From Bullets to Ballots: Violent Muslim Movements in Transition. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. p. 129. ISBN 9781412812016. Iran's Revolutionary Guards (Pasdaran) trained the PKK in Lebanon's Beka'a Valley. Iran supported the PKK despite Turkey's strict neutrality during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988).
  19. ^ أ ب "Syria and Iran 'backing Kurdish terrorist group', says Turkey". The Telegraph. 3 September 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
  20. ^ Bal, İdris (2004). Turkish Foreign Policy In Post Cold War Era. Boca Raton, Fl.: BrownWalker Press. p. 359. ISBN 9781581124231. With the explicit supports of some Arab countries for the PKK such as Syria...
  21. ^ Mannes, Aaron (2004). Profiles In Terror: The Guide To Middle East Terrorist Organizations. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 185. ISBN 9780742535251. PKK has had substantial operations in northern Iraq, with the support of Iran and Syria.
  22. ^ "Terrorism Havens: Iraq". Council on Foreign Relations. December 1, 2005. Saddam has aided...the Kurdistan Workers' Party (known by its Turkish initials, PKK), a separatist group fighting the Turkish government.
  23. ^ Ciment, James (2015), World Terrorism: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era, Routledge, p. 721, "Other groups that have received Libyan support include the Turkish PKK..." 
  24. ^ "Are the PKK and Cairo new allies?". Rudaw. 27 June 2016. Cairo allegedly gave the PKK delegation funds and weapons after the second meeting, the report adds.
  25. ^ "III. International Sources of Support". Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
  26. ^ Martin van Bruinessen, "Zaza, Alevi and Dersimi as Deliberately Embraced Ethnic Identities" in '"Aslını İnkar Eden Haramzadedir!" The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of The Kurdish Alevis' in Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, Anke Otter-Beaujean, Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium "Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Sycretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present" Berlin, 14-17 April 1995, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 9789004108615, p. 13.
  27. ^ Martin van Bruinessen, "Zaza, Alevi and Dersimi as Deliberately Embraced Ethnic Identities" in '"Aslını İnkar Eden Haramzadedir!" The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of The Kurdish Alevis', p. 14.
  28. ^ "Turkey: PKK leader calls halt to armed struggle". Ansamed. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  29. ^ "Cautious Turkish PM welcomes Öcalan's call for end to armed struggle". Hürriyet Daily News. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  30. ^ "Kurdish separatist group leader Öcalan calls to stop armed struggle". Trend AZ. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  31. ^ أ ب "Ocalan's farewell to arms brings Kurds hope for peace". Euronews. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  32. ^ "PJAK attacks along Iran borders decline". Presstv.com. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ "NEWS FROM TURKISH ARMED FORCES". Turkish Armed Forces. Archived from the original on 5 نوفمبر 2015. Retrieved 15 يناير 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ "Turkey's Paramilitary Forces" (PDF). Orbat. 25 July 2006. p. 33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ "Turkey's 'village guards' tired of conflict". My Sinchew. 19 April 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  36. ^ Pike, John (21 May 2004). "Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)". Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 23 July 2008.
  37. ^ أ ب "The PKK in Numbers". Sabah News Agency. 28 December 2015.
  38. ^ ISN Kurdish strike reminder of forgotten war, 26 February 2007
  39. ^ Iran's Kurdish Threat: PJAK[dead link], 15 June 2006
  40. ^ أ ب Brandon, James. "The Kurdistan Freedom Falcons Emerges as a Rival to the PKK". Jamestown.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  41. ^ 14 taken (May 1993),[1] 8 taken (Oct. 2007),[2] 23 taken (2011–12),[3] 8 released (Feb. 2015),[4] 20 taken/released (June–Sep. 2015),[5] 20 held (Dec. 2015),[6] 2 taken (Jan. 2016),[7] total of 95 reported taken
  42. ^ 20 في ديسمبر. 2015،[8] 2 taken Jan. 2016,[9] total of 22 reported currently held
  43. ^ "How many martyrs did Turkey lost?". Internethaber. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  44. ^ أ ب Şafak, Yeni. "Nearly 7,000 civilians killed by PKK in 31 years".
  45. ^ "HSM, 1 yıllık savaş bilançosunu açıkladı: 2982 asker ve polis öldürüldü". firatnews.com. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  46. ^ "HPG bir yıllık savaş bilançosunu açıkladı: 2982 asker ve polis öldü". Yolculuk Gazete. 26 July 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  47. ^ "HPG'den yıllık savaş bilançosu – STÊRK". tr.sterk.tv. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
  48. ^ Kurdistanê, Navenda Lêkolînên Stratejîk a. "HPG'den 2009 Yılı Savaş Bilançosu | Kürdistan Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi | Lekolin.org". www.lekolin.org. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
  49. ^ 22,374 قتيل (1984–2015),[10] 9,500 قتيل (2015–2016)، [11] 600 killed (2017),[12], 203,000 arrested (1984–2012),[13], 62,145 captured from 2003 to 2011, total of 31,874 reported killed and 203,000 arrested
  50. ^ "Erdoğan'dan 'milli seferberlik' ilanı". 15 December 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2017 – via www.bbc.com.
  51. ^ [14]
  52. ^ Reuters (10 January 2016). "Turkish forces kill 32 Kurdish militants in bloody weekend as conflict escalates" – via The Guardian. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  53. ^ "PKK declares end to unilateral truce in Turkey". AFP. 5 November 2015.
  54. ^ "Over 1,100 die in PKK attacks in Turkey since July 2015". Retrieved 10 November 2016.
  55. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة belge
  56. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة executions
  57. ^ Visweswaran, edited by Kamala (2013). Everyday occupations experiencing militarism in South Asia and the Middle East (1st ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 14. ISBN 0812207831. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  58. ^ Romano, David (2005). The Kurdish nationalist movement : opportunity, mobilization and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 0521684269.
  59. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة wounded
  60. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة مشرد
  61. ^ "Turkish Hezbollah (Hizbullah) / Kurdish Hezbollah". Turkish Weekly. Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  62. ^ "The real challenge to secular Turkey". The Economist. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  63. ^ Dogan, Azimet (2008). Characteristics of Turkish Hezbollah: Implications for Policy and Programs. University of Baltimore.
  64. ^ T. Nugent, John. "The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah as a Model for Counter-Terrorism Strategy". the Department of National Security Affairs. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  65. ^ Jenkins, Gareth (2010). "A New Front in the PKK Insurgency". International Relations and Security Network (ISN). International Relations and Security Network (ISN). Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  66. ^ TÜRKİYE'DE HALEN FAALİYETLERİNE DEVAM EDEN BAŞLICA TERÖR ÖRGÜTLERİ: "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 January 2013. Retrieved 2016-04-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  67. ^ أ ب ت "Partiya Karkeran Kurdistan [PKK]". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
  68. ^ "'PKK ready to swap arms for autonomy'". Press TV. 13 September 2010. Archived from the original on 14 September 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  69. ^ "Kurdish PKK leader: We will not withdraw our autonomy demand". Ekurd.net. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  70. ^ David O'Byrne (21 July 2010). "PKK 'would disarm for Kurdish rights in Turkey'". BBC News. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  71. ^ Bloomberg Sex Scandal Shake-Up Reinvigorates Turkish Opposition Party Archived 10 نوفمبر 2013 at the Wayback Machine, 23 May 2010
  72. ^ Jenkins, Gareth. "PKK Expanding Urban Bombing Campaign in Western Turkey". Jamestown.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  73. ^ Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council. "The Kurdish conflict (1984–2006)". Internal-displacement.org. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  74. ^ "Barzani Calls on Turkey to Stop Attacks on PKK". 2015-07-25.
  75. ^ "Iraq warns Turkey over incursion". BBC News. 23 February 2008. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  76. ^ PKK: Targets and activities, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Turkey), Federation of American Scientists.
  77. ^ Mutlu, Servet (2008). "Türkiye'nin güvenliği: Ayrılıkçı PKK Terörünün Ekonomik Maliyeti" [The security of Turkey: Economic cost of separatist PKK terrorism] (PDF) (in Turkish).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  78. ^ أ ب "Turkey: The PKK and a Kurdish settlement" Archived 15 سبتمبر 2012 at the Wayback Machine, International Crisis Group, 11 September 2012
  79. ^ "Lice'nin Fis köyünde PKK'nın kuruluşunu kutladılar". Hürriyet Daily News. 27 November 2014. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
  80. ^ Bilgin, Fevzi; Sarihan, Ali, eds. (2013). Understanding Turkey's Kurdish Question. Lexington Books. p. 90. ISBN 9780739184035.
  81. ^ Balci, Ali (2016). The PKK-Kurdistan Workers' Party's Regional Politics: During and After the Cold War. Springer. p. 96. ISBN 3319422197.
  82. ^ أ ب Hannum, Hurst (1996). Autonomy, sovereignty, and self-determination: the accommodation of conflicting rights (Rev. ed.). Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 187–9. ISBN 0-8122-1572-9.
  83. ^ Turkey - Linguistic and Ethnic Groups - U.S. Library of Congress
  84. ^ Bartkus, Viva Ona, The Dynamic of Secession, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 90-91.
  85. ^ Çelik, Yasemin (1999). Contemporary Turkish foreign policy (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p. 3. ISBN 9780275965907.
  86. ^ Baser, Bahar (2016). Diasporas and Homeland Conflicts: A Comparative Perspective. ISBN 1317151291.
  87. ^ Heshmati, Almas; Dilani, Alan; Baban, Serwan, eds. (2014). Perspectives on Kurdistan's Economy and Society in Transition. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 422. ISBN 1443869716.
  88. ^ Toumani, Meline. Minority Rules, The New York Times, 17 February 2008
  89. ^ Aslan, Senem (2014). Nation Building in Turkey and Morocco. Cambridge University Press. p. 134. ISBN 1107054605.
  90. ^ Joseph, J. (2006). Turkey and the European Union internal dynamics and external challenges. Basingstoke [England]: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 100. ISBN 0230598587.
  91. ^ Eder, Mine (2016). "Turkey". In Lust, Ellen (ed.). The Middle East (14 ed.). CQ Press. ISBN 1506329306. The Turkish military responded with a ferocious counterinsurgency campaign that led to the deaths of nearly 40,000 people, most of them Turkish Kurdish civilians, and the displacement of more than three million Kurds from southeastern Turkey.
  92. ^ "EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS: Turkey Ranks First in Violations in between 1959-2011". Bianet - Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  93. ^ "Annual report" (PDF) (The European Court of Human Rights). 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  94. ^ "The European Court of Human Rights: Case of Benzer and others v. Turkey" (PDF) (Mass execution of Kurdish villagers). 24 March 2014: 57. Retrieved 29 December 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  95. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة tort1
  96. ^ Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 1998. p. 7.
  97. ^ McKiernan, Kevin (2006). The Kurds: a people in search of their homeland (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 130. ISBN 0312325460.
  98. ^ Neuberger, Benyamin (2014). Bengio, Ofra (ed.). Kurdish awakening : nation building in a fragmented homeland. [S.l.]: Univ Of Texas Press. p. 27. ISBN 0292758138.
  99. ^ Gunes, Cengiz; Zeydanlioğlu, Welat (2014). The Kurdish question in Turkey: new perspectives on violence, representation, and reconciliation. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 98. ISBN 1135140634.
  100. ^ "Police arrest and assistance of a lawyer" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  101. ^ "Justice Comes from European Court for a Kurdish Journalist". Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  102. ^ Whitman, Lois (1993). Laber, Jeri (ed.). The Kurds of Turkey: killings, disappearances and torture. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1564320960.
  103. ^ Panico, Christopher (1999). Turkey : violations of free expression in Turkey. New York: Human Rights Watch. pp. 37–8. ISBN 1564322262.
  104. ^ "PKK has repeatedly asked for a ceasefire of peace since their establishment in the past 17 years". Aknews.com. 6 November 2010. Archived from the original on 12 December 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  105. ^ Jenkins, Gareth. "PKK Changes Battlefield Tactics to Force Turkey into Negotiations". Jamestown.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  106. ^ "PKK/KONGRA-GEL and Terrorism". Ataa.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  107. ^ "PKK leader calls for ceasefire in Turkey". Al Jazeera. 21 مارس 2013. Archived from the original on 21 مارس 2013. Retrieved 21 مارس 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  108. ^ "PKK declares Turkey truce dead after airstrikes". The Daily Star Newspaper. Beirut, Lebanon. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
  109. ^ "U.N. Accuses Turkey of Killing Hundreds of Kurds". The New York Times. 10 March 2017.
  110. ^ أ ب "Turkey: Events of 2016". Human Rights Watch.
  111. ^ "Report on the human rights situation in South-East Turkey" (PDF). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. February 2017. Some of the most extensively damaged sites are Nusaybin, Derik and Dargeçit (Mardin); Sur, Bismil and Dicle (Diyarbakır); and Cizre and Silopi (Şırnak).
  112. ^ "Greener Pastures for Bruce Fein: The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey". Asiantribune.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  113. ^ "The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy". Amazon.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  114. ^ "Turkey in fresh drive to end Kurdish conflict". Middle-east-online.com. 28 September 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  115. ^ "Turkey looks to Iraq to help end Kurdish conflict". Euronews.net. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  116. ^ Head, Jonathan (13 November 2009). "Turkey unveils reforms for Kurds". BBC News. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  117. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (3 January 2011). "Nudging Turkey toward peace at home". London: Guardian. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  118. ^ Emre Uslu. "Would Turkey intervene in Syria?". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help), 5 February 2011
  119. ^ "A Terrorist's Bitter End". Time. 1 March 1999. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  120. ^ Birch, Nicholas (20 October 2009). "Kurdish rebels surrender as Turkey reaches out — War in Context". Warincontext.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  121. ^ "The Kurdish Issue and Turkey's Future". Thewashingtonnote.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  122. ^ BBC News Turkey may ban Kurdish DTP party
  123. ^ "Kurdish rebels say they shot down Turkish helicopter". CNN.com. 7 March 1999. Archived from the original on 13 October 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  124. ^ "Turkish military's best and brightest now behind bars". Reuters. 6 January 2012.
  125. ^ "Turkish crackdown fails to halt Kurdish rebellion". Highbeam.com. 1 November 1992. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  126. ^ "Turkey and Iraq seek to end Kurdish rebellion". Thenational.ae. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  127. ^ "Turkey says determined to uproot Kurdish rebellion". Kuna.net.kw. 25 June 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  128. ^ Tore Kjeilen. "Kurds". Looklex.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  129. ^ "MINA Breaking News – Turkey marks 25 years of Kurd rebellion". Macedoniaonline.eu. 15 August 2009. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  130. ^ "Nation–states and ethnic boundaries: modern Turkish identity and Turkish–Kurdish conflict". Nations and Nationalism. 8: 549–564. doi:10.1111/1469-8219.00065. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
  131. ^ "TURKEY AND PKK TERRORISM" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  132. ^ "A Report on the PKK and Terrorism". Fas.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  133. ^ McDowall, David. A modern History of the Kurds. London 2005, pp 439 ff
  134. ^ Viviano, Frank (23 February 1996). "Inside Turkey's Civil War, Fear and Geopolitics / For all sides, Kurd insurgency is risky business". Articles.sfgate.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  135. ^ "The Kurdish Question In Turkish Politics". Cacianalyst.org. 16 February 1999. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  136. ^ "Israeli military aid used by Turkish in civil war against Kurds". Ivarfjeld.wordpress.com. 25 June 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  137. ^ "Thousands of Kurds protest to support jailed Abdullah Ocalan in Strasbourg". Ekurd.net. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  138. ^ Helena Smith in Athens (11 April 2003). "Turkey told US will remove Kurd forces from city". Guardian. London. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  139. ^ Today's Zaman 1980 coup leader's defense arguments not legally sound Archived 20 يناير 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 21 March 2012.
  140. ^ Feridun, Mete and Shabaz, Muhammad (2010) "Fighting terrorism: Are military measures effective? Empirical evidence from Turkey". Defence and Peace Economics, 21 (2). pp. 193–205. ISSN 1024-2694 (print), 1476–8267 (online) DOI:10.1080/10242690903568884.
  141. ^ Feridun, Mete (2014). "Impact of education and poverty on terrorism in Turkey: An empirical investigation". Applied Research in Quality of Life. ISSN 1871-2584 (print), 1871–2576 (online) (in press) DOI:10.1007/s11482-014-9353-z.
تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=النزاع_التركي_الكردي_(1978–الآن)&oldid=1935656"