الحوادث والأحداث النووية والإشعاعية

Following the 2011 Japanese Fukushima nuclear disaster, authorities shut down the nation's 54 nuclear power plants. As of 2022, the Fukushima site remains radioactive, with some 30,000 evacuees still living in temporary housing, although nobody has died or is expected to die from radiation effects.[1] The difficult cleanup job will take 40 or more years, and cost tens of billions of dollars.[2][3]
Pathways from airborne radioactive contamination to human
The Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant, a Japanese nuclear plant with seven units, the largest single nuclear power station in the world, was completely shut down for 21 months following an earthquake in 2007. Safety-critical systems were found to be undamaged by the earthquake.[4][5]

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility. Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, reactor core melt."[6] The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is damaged and significant amounts of radioactive isotopes are released, such as in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.[7]

The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate since the first nuclear reactors were constructed in 1954 and has been a key factor in public concern about nuclear facilities.[8] Technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted, however human error remains, and "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and incidents".[8][9] As of 2014, there have been more than 100 serious nuclear accidents and incidents from the use of nuclear power. Fifty-seven accidents or severe incidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and about 60% of all nuclear-related accidents/severe incidents have occurred in the USA.[10] Serious nuclear power plant accidents include the Fukushima nuclear disaster (2011), the Chernobyl disaster (1986), the Three Mile Island accident (1979), and the SL-1 accident (1961).[11] Nuclear power accidents can involve loss of life and large monetary costs for remediation work.[12]

Nuclear submarine accidents include the K-19 (1961), K-11 (1965), K-27 (1968), K-140 (1968), K-429 (1970), K-222 (1980), and K-431 (1985)[11][13][14] accidents. Serious radiation incidents/accidents include the Kyshtym disaster, the Windscale fire, the radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica,[15] the radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza,[16] the radiation accident in Morocco,[17] the Goiania accident,[18] the radiation accident in Mexico City, the radiotherapy unit accident in Thailand,[19] and the Mayapuri radiological accident in India.[19]

The IAEA maintains a website reporting recent nuclear accidents.[20]

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حوادث المحطات النووية

The abandoned city of Pripyat, Ukraine, following the Chernobyl disaster. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant is in the background.


قائمة حوادث وأحداث المحطات النووية

انظر أيضاً: Nuclear reactor accidents in the United States, List of nuclear power accidents by country, and List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country
Nuclear plant accidents and incidents
with multiple fatalities and/or more than US$100 million in property damage, 1952-2011[10][21][22]
Date Location of accident Description of accident or incident Dead Cost
($US
millions
2006) 		INES
level[23]
September 29, 1957 Mayak, Kyshtym, Soviet Union The Kyshtym disaster was a radiation contamination accident (after a chemical explosion that occurred within a storage tank) at Mayak, a Nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in the Soviet Union. Estimated 200 possible cancer fatalities[24] 6
October 10, 1957 Sellafield, Cumberland, United Kingdom Windscale fire was a fire at the British atomic bomb project (in a plutonium-production-reactor) damaged the core and released an estimated 740 terabecquerels of iodine-131 into the environment. A rudimentary smoke filter constructed over the main outlet chimney successfully prevented a far worse radiation leak. 0 direct, estimated up to 240 possible cancer victims[24] 5
January 3, 1961 Idaho Falls, Idaho, United States Explosion at SL-1 prototype at the National Reactor Testing Station. All 3 operators were killed when a control rod was removed too far. 3 22 4
October 5, 1966 Frenchtown Charter Township, Michigan, United States Meltdown of some fuel elements in the Fermi 1 Reactor at the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station. Little radiation leakage into the environment. 0 132[25] 4
January 21, 1969 Lucens reactor, Vaud, Switzerland On January 21, 1969, it suffered a loss-of-coolant accident, leading to meltdown of one fuel element and radioactive contamination of the cavern, which before was sealed. 0 4
December 7, 1975 Greifswald, East Germany Electrical error in Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant causes fire in the main trough that destroys control lines and five main coolant pumps 0 443 3
January 5, 1976 Jaslovské Bohunice, Czechoslovakia Malfunction during fuel replacement. Fuel rod ejected from reactor into the reactor hall by coolant (CO2).[26] 2 1,700 4
March 28, 1979 Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, United States Loss of coolant and partial core meltdown due to operator errors and technical flaws. There is a small release of radioactive gases. See also Three Mile Island accident health effects. 0 2,400 5
September 15, 1984 Athens, Alabama, United States Safety violations, operator error and design problems force a six-year outage at Browns Ferry Unit 2. 0 110
March 9, 1985 Athens, Alabama, United States Instrumentation systems malfunction during startup, which led to suspension of operations at all three Browns Ferry Units 0 1,830
April 11, 1986 Plymouth, Massachusetts, United States Recurring equipment problems force emergency shutdown of Boston Edison's Pilgrim Nuclear Power Plant 0 1,001
April 26, 1986 Chernobyl, Chernobyl Raion (Now Ivankiv Raion), Kiev Oblast, Ukraininan SSR, Soviet Union A flawed reactor design and inadequate safety procedures led to a power surge that damaged the fuel rods of reactor no. 4 of the Chernobyl power plant. This caused an explosion and meltdown, necessitating the evacuation of 300,000 people and dispersing radioactive material across Europe (see Effects of the Chernobyl disaster).

Around 5% (5200 PBq) of the core was released into the atmosphere and downwind.

28 direct, 19 not entirely related and 15 children due to thyroid cancer, as of 2008.[27][28] Estimated up to 4,000 possible cancer deaths.[29] 6,700 7
May 4, 1986 Hamm-Uentrop, West Germany Experimental THTR-300 reactor releases small amounts of fission products (0.1 GBq Co-60, Cs-137, Pa-233) to surrounding area 0 267
December 9, 1986 Surry, Virginia, United States Feedwater pipe break at Surry Nuclear Power Plant kills 4 workers 4
March 31, 1987 Delta, Pennsylvania, United States Peach Bottom units 2 and 3 shutdown due to cooling malfunctions and unexplained equipment problems 0 400
December 19, 1987 Lycoming, New York, United States Malfunctions force Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation to shut down Nine Mile Point Unit 1 0 150
March 17, 1989 Lusby, Maryland, United States Inspections at Calvert Cliff Units 1 and 2 reveal cracks at pressurized heater sleeves, forcing extended shutdowns 0 120
October 19, 1989 Vandellòs, Spain A fire damaged the cooling system in unit 1 of the Vandellòs nuclear power plant, getting the core close to meltdown. The cooling system was restored before the meltdown but the unit had to be shut down due to the elevated cost of the repair. 0 220[30] 3
March 1992 Sosnovyi Bor, Leningrad Oblast, Russia An accident at the Sosnovy Bor nuclear plant leaked radioactive iodine into the air through a ruptured fuel channel.
February 20, 1996 Waterford, Connecticut, United States Leaking valve forces shutdown Millstone Nuclear Power Plant Units 1 and 2, multiple equipment failures found 0 254
September 2, 1996 Crystal River, Florida, United States Balance-of-plant equipment malfunction forces shutdown and extensive repairs at Crystal River Unit 3 0 384
September 30, 1999 Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan Tokaimura nuclear accident killed two workers, and exposed one more to radiation levels above permissible limits. 2 54 4
February 16, 2002 Oak Harbor, Ohio, United States Severe corrosion of reactor vessel head forces 24-month outage of Davis-Besse reactor 0 143 3
April 10, 2003 Paks, Hungary Collapse of fuel rods at Paks Nuclear Power Plant unit 2 during its corrosion cleaning led to leakage of radioactive gases. It remained inactive for 18 months. 0 3
August 9, 2004 Fukui Prefecture, Japan Steam explosion at Mihama Nuclear Power Plant kills 4 workers and injures 7 more 4 9 1
July 25, 2006 Forsmark, Sweden An electrical fault at Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant caused multiple failures in safety systems that had the reactor to cool down 0 100 2
March 11, 2011 Fukushima, Japan A tsunami flooded and damaged the plant's 3 active reactors, drowning two workers. Loss of backup electrical power led to overheating, meltdowns, and evacuations.[31] One man died suddenly while carrying equipment during the clean-up.[32] The plant's reactors Nr. 4, 5 and 6 were inactive at the time. 1[33] and 3+ labour accidents; plus a broader number of primarily ill or elderly people from evacuation stress 1,255–2,078 (2018 est.)[34] 7
September 12, 2011 Marcoule, France One person was killed and four injured, one seriously, in a blast at the Marcoule Nuclear Site. The explosion took place in a furnace used to melt metallic waste. 1

الهجمات على المفاعلات النووية

المقالة الرئيسية: Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
انظر أيضاً: إرهاب نووي


الحوادث والأحداث الإشعاعية

انظر أيضاً: List of civilian radiation accidents and List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States
Dr. Joseph G. Hamilton was the primary researcher for the human plutonium experiments done at U.C. San Francisco from 1944 to 1947.[35] Hamilton wrote a memo in 1950 discouraging further human experiments because the AEC would be left open "to considerable criticism," since the experiments as proposed had "a little of the Buchenwald touch."[36]
One of four example estimates of the plutonium (Pu-239) plume from the 1957 fire at the Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant near Denver, Colorado. Public protests and a combined Federal Bureau of Investigation and United States Environmental Protection Agency raid in 1989 stopped production at the plant.
Corroded and leaking 55-gallon drum, for storing radioactive waste at the Rocky Flats Plant, tipped on its side so the bottom is showing.
The Hanford site represents two-thirds of USA's high-level radioactive waste by volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the Columbia River in January 1960.
On Feb. 14, 2014, at the WIPP, radioactive materials leaked from a damaged storage drum (see photo). Analysis of several accidents, by DOE, have shown lack of a "safety culture" at the facility.[37]
The 18,000 km2 expanse of the Semipalatinsk Test Site (indicated in red), which covers an area the size of Wales. The Soviet Union conducted 456 nuclear tests at Semipalatinsk from 1949 until 1989 with little regard for their effect on the local people or environment. The full impact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by Soviet authorities and has only come to light since the test site closed in 1991.[38]
2007 ISO radioactivity danger symbol. The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used in places or on equipment where exceptionally intense radiation fields could be encountered or created through misuse or tampering. The intention is that a normal user will never see such a sign, however after partly dismantling the equipment the sign will be exposed warning that the person should stop work and leave the scene




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ملخص اختبارات الأسلحة النووية حول العالم

Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted, in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, black Israel, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green Australia (territories exposed to nuclear bombs)
The airburst nuclear explosion of July 1, 1946. Photo taken from a tower on Bikini Island, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) away.
Operation Crossroads Test Able, a 23-kiloton air-deployed nuclear weapon detonated on July 1, 1946.
Radioactive materials were accidentally released from the 1970 Baneberry Nuclear Test at the Nevada Test Site.


This handbill was distributed 16 days before the first nuclear device was detonated at the Nevada Test Site.


الإتجار والسرقات

انظر أيضاً: Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack


تصنيف الحوادث

Nuclear meltdown

المقالة الرئيسية: Nuclear meltdown and Design-basis event


Criticality accidents

Decay heat

Transport

The recovered thermonuclear bomb was displayed by U.S. Navy officials on the fantail of the submarine rescue ship U.S.S. Petrel after it was located in the sea off the coast of Spain at a depth of 762 meters and recovered in April 1966



Equipment failure

Human error

A sketch used by doctors to determine the amount of radiation to which each person had been exposed during the Slotin excursion



Lost source

انظر أيضاً: List of orphan source incidents



Comparisons

Hypothetical number of global deaths which would have resulted from energy production if the world's energy production was met through a single source, in 2014.




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Nuclear safety

المقالة الرئيسية: Nuclear safety



Ecological impacts

Impact on land

Impact on water

Fukushima Daiichi accident

Chernobyl accident

Effects of acute radiation exposure

قالب:Whole-body absorbed dose symptom

See also

References

  1. ^ "SOURCES, EFFECTS AND RISKS OF IONIZING RADIATION : UNSCEAR 2013 Report" (PDF). Unscea.org. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  2. ^ Richard Schiffman (12 March 2013). "Two years on, America hasn't learned lessons of Fukushima nuclear disaster". The Guardian.
  3. ^ Martin Fackler (June 1, 2011). "Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger". New York Times.
  4. ^ "Regulator OKs safety report on Kashiwazaki-Kariwa units - World Nuclear News". World-nuclear-news.org. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  5. ^ "IAEA Team to Report on Kashiwazaki Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant Examination" (PDF). Iaea.org. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  6. ^ Staff, IAEA, AEN/NEA. International Nuclear and Radiological Events Scale Users' Manual, 2008 Edition (PDF). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 183. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2011. Retrieved 2010-07-26.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Yablokov, Alexey V.; Nesterenko, Vassily B.; Nesterenko, Alexey; Sherman-Nevinger, consulting editor, Jannette D. (2009). Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment. Boston, MA: Blackwell Publishing for the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-1-57331-757-3. Retrieved 11 June 2016. {{cite book}}: |last4= has generic name (help)
  8. ^ أ ب M.V. Ramana. Nuclear Power: Economic, Safety, Health, and Environmental Issues of Near-Term Technologies, Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2009, 34, p. 136.
  9. ^ Matthew Wald (February 29, 2012). "The Nuclear Ups and Downs of 2011". New York Times.
  10. ^ أ ب Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2010). "A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 40 (3): 369–400. doi:10.1080/00472331003798350. S2CID 154882872.
  11. ^ أ ب "The Worst Nuclear Disasters". TIME.com. 25 March 2009.
  12. ^ Gralla, Fabienne, Abson, David J., and Muller, Anders, P. et al. "Nuclear accidents call for transdisciplinary energy research", Sustainability Science, January 2015.
  13. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة epe2011
  14. ^ Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties". Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events.
  15. ^ Gusev, Igor; Guskova, Angelina; Mettler, Fred A. (2001-03-28). Medical Management of Radiation Accidents, Second Edition (in الإنجليزية). CRC Press. ISBN 9781420037197.
  16. ^ Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources p. 15.
  17. ^ "NRC: Information Notice No. 85-57: Lost Iridium-192 Source Resulting in the Death of Eight Persons in Morocco". Nrc.gov.
  18. ^ The Radiological Accident in Goiania p. 2, Pub.iaea.org
  19. ^ أ ب Pallava Bagla. "Radiation Accident a 'Wake-Up Call' For India's Scientific Community" Science, Vol. 328, 7 May 2010, p. 679.
  20. ^ "IAEA Scientific and Technical Publications of Special Interest". Pub.iaea.org. Archived from the original on 2017-05-03. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
  21. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة bksenpol
  22. ^ Benjamin K. Sovacool (2009). The Accidental Century - Prominent Energy Accidents in the Last 100 Years Archived 2014-08-08 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ^ Timeline: Nuclear plant accidents BBC News, 11 July 2006.
  24. ^ أ ب Cohen, Jennie. "History's Worst Nuclear Disasters". HISTORY.
  25. ^ "Nuclear Accidents". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu.
  26. ^ cs:Havárie elektrárny Jaslovské Bohunice A-1
  27. ^ "Sources and effects of ionizing radiation—UNSCEAR 2008 Report. Volume II: EFFECTS. Scientific Annexes C, D and E" (PDF). UNSCEAR. 6 April 2011. pp. 64–65. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
  28. ^ "UNSCEAR assessments of the Chernobyl accident". Unscear.org. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  29. ^ See in the referenced article List of nuclear power accidents by country, the official WHO-estimate
  30. ^ "La nit més llarga de Vandellòs". El País Catalunya. 18 October 2014.
  31. ^ "Worker dies at damaged Fukushima nuclear plant". CBS News. 2011-05-14.
  32. ^ "Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log". Iaea.org. 2011-04-11.
  33. ^ Rich, Motoko (Sep 6, 2018). "In a First, Japan Says Fukushima Radiation Caused Worker's Cancer Death (Published 2018)". The New York Times.
  34. ^ Jiji, Kyodo (March 24, 2018). "Estimated cost of Fukushima disaster might balloon to ¥218 billion". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 2018-03-23. Retrieved 25 September 2018. ... balloon to between ¥131.8 billion and ¥218.2 billion.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) – Based on the source's front page for 2018-03-24, the exchange rate was 105¥/USD, resulting in a range of USD1,255–2,078.
  35. ^ Moss, William; Eckhardt, Roger (1995). "The Human Plutonium Injection Experiments" (PDF). Los Alamos Science. Radiation Protection and the Human Radiation Experiments (23): 177–223. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
  36. ^ "The Media & Me: [The Radiation Story No One Would Touch], Geoffrey Sea, Columbia Journalism Review, March/April 1994.
  37. ^ Cameron L. Tracy, Megan K. Dustin & Rodney C. Ewing, Policy: Reassess New Mexico's nuclear-waste repository, Nature, 13 January 2016.
  38. ^ Togzhan Kassenova (28 September 2009). "The lasting toll of Semipalatinsk's nuclear testing". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

Further reading

External links

قالب:Radiation poisoning قالب:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

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