لانثانيد

سلسلة اللانثـنيدات تتكون من 14 عنصر أرضي نادر تبدأ من سيريوم إلى لوتيتيوم في الجدول الدوري ، بالأرقام الذرية من 58 إلى 71 . وترجع تسمية سلسلة اللانثينيدات إلى عنصر اللانثانوم رغم أنه لا يوجد فيها . وتلى سلسة اللانثينيدات سلسة الأكتينيدات .

وتكون سلسلة اللانثينيدات هى السلسلة التى يكون فيها المدار f ممتلئ جزئيا أو كليا . بينما تكون المدارات الخارجية p و d فارغة . وحيث ان المدار f ليس نشيط كيميائيا مثل المدارات s و d و p ، فإن عناصر سلسلة اللانثينيدات تكون متشابها كيميائيا .

ويتم وضع سلسة اللانثينيدات تحت الجدول الدوري كما لو كانت تذييل له . بينما يوضح الجدول الدوري الطويل المكان الفعلى لمجموعة اللانثينيدات .

قالب:Periodic table (lanthanides)

الرقم الذري	الإسم	الرمز
58	سيريوم	Ce
59	براسيوديميوم	Pr
60	نيوديوم	Nd
61	بروميثيوم	Pm
62	ساماريوم	Sm
63	يوروبيوم	Eu
64	جادولينيوم	Gd
65	تريبيوم	Tb
66	ديسبروسيوم	Dy
67	هولميوم	Ho
68	إبريوم	Er
69	ثوليوم	Tm
70	اِيتربيوم	Yb
71	لوتيتيوم	Lu

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الخصائص الطبيعية للعناصر

Chemical element	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
Atomic number	57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64	65	66	67	68	69	70	71
Image
Density (g/cm³)	6.162	6.770	6.77	7.01	7.26	7.52	5.244	7.90	8.23	8.540	8.79	9.066	9.32	6.90	9.841
Melting point (°C)	920	795	935	1024	1042	1072	826	1312	1356	1407	1461	1529	1545	824	1652
Boiling point (°C)	3464	3443	3520	3074	3000	1794	1529	3273	3230	2567	2720	2868	1950	1196	3402
Atomic electron configuration (gas phase)*	5d¹	4f¹5d¹	4f³	4f⁴	4f⁵	4f⁶	4f⁷	4f⁷5d¹	4f⁹	4f¹⁰	4f¹¹	4f¹²	4f¹³	4f¹⁴	4f¹⁴5d¹
Metal lattice (RT)	dhcp	fcc	dhcp	dhcp	dhcp	**	bcc	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	fcc	hcp
Metallic radius (pm)	162	181.8	182.4	181.4	183.4	180.4	208.4	180.4	177.3	178.1	176.2	176.1	175.9	193.3	173.8
Resistivity at 25 °C (μΩ·cm)	57–80 20 °C	73	68	64		88	90	134	114	57	87	87	79	29	79
Magnetic susceptibility χ_mol /10⁻⁶(cm³·mol⁻¹)	+95.9	+2500 (β)	+5530(α)	+5930 (α)		+1278(α)	+30900	+185000 (350 K)	+170000 (α)	+98000	+72900	+48000	+24700	+67 (β)	+183

* Between initial Xe and final 6s² electronic shells

** Sm has a close packed structure like most of the lanthanides but has an unusual 9 layer repeat

Gschneider and Daane (1988) attribute the trend in melting point which increases across the series, (lanthanum (920 °C) – lutetium (1622 °C)) to the extent of hybridization of the 6s, 5d, and 4f orbitals. The hybridization is believed to be at its greatest for cerium, which has the lowest melting point of all, 795 °C.^[1] The lanthanide metals are soft; their hardness increases across the series.^[2] Europium stands out, as it has the lowest density in the series at 5.24 g/cm³ and the largest metallic radius in the series at 208.4 pm. It can be compared to barium, which has a metallic radius of 222 pm. It is believed that the metal contains the larger Eu²⁺ ion and that there are only two electrons in the conduction band. Ytterbium also has a large metallic radius, and a similar explanation is suggested.^[2] The resistivities of the lanthanide metals are relatively high, ranging from 29 to 134 μΩ·cm. These values can be compared to a good conductor such as aluminium, which has a resistivity of 2.655 μΩ·cm. With the exceptions of La, Yb, and Lu (which have no unpaired f electrons), the lanthanides are strongly paramagnetic, and this is reflected in their magnetic susceptibilities. Gadolinium becomes ferromagnetic at below 16 °C (Curie point). The other heavier lanthanides – terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, and ytterbium – become ferromagnetic at much lower temperatures.^[3]

Chemistry and compounds

Chemical element	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
Atomic number	57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64	65	66	67	68	69	70	71
Ln³⁺ electron configuration*^[4]	4f⁰	4f¹	4f²	4f³	4f⁴	4f⁵	4f⁶	4f⁷	4f⁸	4f⁹	4f¹⁰	4f¹¹	4f¹²	4f¹³	4f¹⁴
Ln³⁺ radius (pm)^[2]	103	102	99	98.3	97	95.8	94.7	93.8	92.3	91.2	90.1	89	88	86.8	86.1
Ln⁴⁺ ion color in aqueous solution^[5]	—	Orange-yellow	Yellow	Blue-violet	—	—	—	—	Red-brown	Orange-yellow	—	—	—	—	—
Ln³⁺ ion color in aqueous solution^[4]	Colorless	Colorless	Green	Violet	Pink	Pale yellow	Colorless	Colorless	V. pale pink	Pale yellow	Yellow	Rose	Pale green	Colorless	Colorless
Ln²⁺ ion color in aqueous solution^[2]	—	—	—	—	—	Blood red	Colorless	—	—	—	—	—	Violet-red	Yellow-green	—

* Not including initial [Xe] core

Approximate colors of lanthanide ions in aqueous solution^[2]^[6]^[7]
Oxidation state	57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64	65	66	67	68	69	70	71
+2						Sm²⁺	Eu²⁺						Tm²⁺	Yb²⁺
+3	La³⁺	Ce³⁺	Pr³⁺	Nd³⁺	Pm³⁺	Sm³⁺	Eu³⁺	Gd³⁺	Tb³⁺	Dy³⁺	Ho³⁺	Er³⁺	Tm³⁺	Yb³⁺	Lu³⁺
+4		Ce⁴⁺	Pr⁴⁺	Nd⁴⁺					Tb⁴⁺	Dy⁴⁺

Effect of 4f orbitals

Going across the lanthanides in the periodic table, the 4f orbitals are usually being filled. The effect of the 4f orbitals on the chemistry of the lanthanides is profound and is the factor that distinguishes them from the transition metals. There are seven 4f orbitals, and there are two different ways in which they are depicted: as a "cubic set" or as a general set. The cubic set is f_z³, f_xz², f_yz², f_xyz, f_z(x²−y²), f_{x(x²−3y²)} and f_{y(3x²−y²)}. The 4f orbitals penetrate the [Xe] core and are isolated, and thus they do not participate in bonding. This explains why crystal field effects are small and why they do not form π bonds.^[4] As there are seven 4f orbitals, the number of unpaired electrons can be as high as 7, which gives rise to the large magnetic moments observed for lanthanide compounds.

Measuring the magnetic moment can be used to investigate the 4f electron configuration, and this is a useful tool in providing an insight into the chemical bonding.^[8] The lanthanide contraction, i.e. the reduction in size of the Ln³⁺ ion from La³⁺ (103 pm) to Lu³⁺ (86.1 pm), is often explained by the poor shielding of the 5s and 5p electrons by the 4f electrons.^[4]

Lanthanide oxides: clockwise from top center: praseodymium, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, samarium and gadolinium.

The electronic structure of the lanthanide elements, with minor exceptions, is [Xe]6s²4fⁿ. The chemistry of the lanthanides is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, and in Ln^III compounds the 6s electrons and (usually) one 4f electron are lost and the ions have the configuration [Xe]4f^m.^[9] All the lanthanide elements exhibit the oxidation state +3. In addition, Ce³⁺ can lose its single f electron to form Ce⁴⁺ with the stable electronic configuration of xenon. Also, Eu³⁺ can gain an electron to form Eu²⁺ with the f⁷ configuration that has the extra stability of a half-filled shell. Other than Ce(IV) and Eu(II), none of the lanthanides are stable in oxidation states other than +3 in aqueous solution. Promethium is effectively a man-made element, as all its isotopes are radioactive with half-lives shorter than 20 years.

In terms of reduction potentials, the Ln^0/3+ couples are nearly the same for all lanthanides, ranging from −1.99 (for Eu) to −2.35 V (for Pr). Thus these metals are highly reducing, with reducing power similar to alkaline earth metals such as Mg (−2.36 V).^[2]

Lanthanide oxidation states

Ionization energies and reduction potentials of the elements
Chemical element	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
Atomic number	57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64	65	66	67	68	69	70	71
electron configuration above [Xe] core	5d¹6s²	4f¹5d¹6s²	4f³6s²	4f⁴6s²	4f⁵6s²	4f⁶6s²	4f⁷6s²	4f⁷5d¹6s²	4f⁹6s²	4f¹⁰6s²	4f¹¹6s²	4f¹²6s²	4f¹³6s²	4f¹⁴6s²	4f¹⁴5d¹6s²
E° Ln⁴⁺/Ln³⁺		1.72	3.2						3.1
E° Ln³⁺/Ln²⁺				−2.6		−1.55	−0.35			−2.5			−2.3	−1.05
E° Ln³⁺/Ln	−2.38	−2.34	−2.35	−2.32	−2.29	−2.30	−1.99	−2.28	−2.31	−2.29	−2.33	−2.32	−2.32	−2.22	−2.30
1st Ionization energy (kJ·mol⁻¹)	538	541	522	530	536	542	547	595	569	567	574	581	589	603	513
2nd Ionization energy (kJ·mol⁻¹)	1067	1047	1018	1034	1052	1068	1085	1172	1112	1126	1139	1151	1163	1175	1341
1st + 2nd Ionization energy (kJ·mol⁻¹)	1605	1588	1540	1564	1588	1610	1632	1767	1681	1693	1713	1732	1752	1778	1854
3rd Ionization energy (kJ·mol⁻¹)	1850	1940	2090	2128	2140	2285	2425	1999	2122	2230	2221	2207	2305	2408	2054
1st + 2nd + 3rd Ionization energy (kJ·mol⁻¹)	3455	3528	3630	3692	3728	3895	4057	3766	3803	3923	3934	3939	4057	4186	3908
4th Ionization energy (kJ·mol⁻¹)	4819	3547	3761	3900	3970	3990	4120	4250	3839	3990	4100	4120	4120	4203	4370

The ionization energies for the lanthanides can be compared with aluminium. In aluminium the sum of the first three ionization energies is 5139 kJ·mol⁻¹, whereas the lanthanides fall in the range 3455 – 4186 kJ·mol⁻¹. This correlates with the highly reactive nature of the lanthanides.

Samples of lanthanide nitrates in their hexahydrate form. From left to right: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu.

Hydrides

Chemical element	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
Atomic number	57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64	65	66	67	68	69	70	71
Metal lattice (RT)	dhcp	fcc	dhcp	dhcp	dhcp	r	bcc	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp
Dihydride^[10]	LaH_2+x	CeH_2+x	PrH_2+x	NdH_2+x		SmH_2+x	EuH₂ o "salt like"	GdH_2+x	TbH_2+x	DyH_2+x	HoH_2+x	ErH_2+x	TmH_2+x	YbH_2+x o, fcc "salt like"	LuH_2+x
Structure	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	*PbCl₂^[11]	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂	CaF₂		CaF₂
metal sub lattice	fcc	fcc	fcc	fcc	fcc	fcc	o	fcc	fcc	fcc	fcc	fcc	fcc	o fcc	fcc
Trihydride^[10]	LaH_3−x	CeH_3−x	PrH_3−x	NdH_3−x		SmH_3−x	EuH_3−x^[12]	GdH_3−x	TbH_3−x	DyH_3−x	HoH_3−x	ErH_3−x	TmH_3−x		LuH_3−x
metal sub lattice	fcc	fcc	fcc	hcp	hcp	hcp	fcc	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp	hcp
Trihydride properties transparent insulators (color where recorded)	red	bronze to grey^[13]	PrH_3−x fcc	NdH_3−x hcp		golden greenish^[14]	EuH_3−x fcc	GdH_3−x hcp	TbH_3−x hcp	DyH_3−x hcp	HoH_3−x hcp	ErH_3−x hcp	TmH_3−x hcp		LuH_3−x hcp

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Halides

Lanthanide halides^[2]^[15]^[16]^[17]
Chemical element	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
Atomic number	57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64	65	66	67	68	69	70	71
Tetrafluoride		CeF₄	PrF₄	NdF₄					TbF₄	DyF₄
Color m.p. °C		white dec	white dec						white dec
Structure C.N.		UF₄ 8	UF₄ 8						UF₄ 8
Trifluoride	LaF₃	CeF₃	PrF₃	NdF₃	PmF₃	SmF₃	EuF₃	GdF₃	TbF₃	DyF₃	HoF₃	ErF₃	TmF₃	YbF₃	LuF₃
Color m.p. °C	white 1493^[18]	white 1430	green 1395	violet 1374	green 1399	white 1306	white 1276	white 1231	white 1172	green 1154	pink 1143	pink 1140	white 1158	white 1157	white 1182
Structure C.N.	LaF₃ 9	LaF₃ 9	LaF₃ 9	LaF₃ 9	LaF₃ 9	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8	YF₃ 8
Trichloride	LaCl₃	CeCl₃	PrCl₃	NdCl₃	PmCl₃	SmCl₃	EuCl₃	GdCl₃	TbCl₃	DyCl₃	HoCl₃	ErCl₃	TmCl₃	YbCl₃	LuCl₃
Color m.p. °C	white 858	white 817	green 786	mauve 758	green 786	yellow 682	yellow dec	white 602	white 582	white 647	yellow 720	violet 776	yellow 824	white 865	white 925
Structure C.N.	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8	YCl₃ 6	YCl₃ 6	YCl₃ 6	YCl₃ 6	YCl₃ 6
Tribromide	LaBr₃	CeBr₃	PrBr₃	NdBr₃	PmF₃	SmBr₃	EuBr₃	GdBr₃	TbBr₃	DyBr₃	HoBr₃	ErBr₃	TmBr₃	YbBr₃	LuBr₃
Color m.p. °C	white 783	white 733	green 691	violet 682	green 693	yellow 640	grey dec	white 770	white 828	white 879	yellow 919	violet 923	white 954	white dec	white 1025
Structure C.N.	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	UCl₃ 9	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8	6	6	6	6	6	6	6	6
Triiodide	LaI₃	CeI₃	PrI₃	NdI₃	PmI₃	SmI₃	EuI₃	GdI₃	TbI₃	DyI₃	HoI₃	ErI₃	TmI₃	YbI₃	LuI₃
Color m.p. °C		yellow 766	green 738	green 784	green 737	orange 850	dec.	yellow 925	957	green 978	yellow 994	violet 1015	yellow 1021	white dec	brown 1050
Structure C.N.	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8	PuBr₃ 8		BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6	BiI₃ 6
Difluoride						SmF₂	EuF₂							YbF₂
Color m.p. °C						purple 1417	yellow 1416							grey
Structure C.N.						CaF₂ 8	CaF₂ 8							CaF₂ 8
Dichloride				NdCl₂		SmCl₂	EuCl₂			DyCl₂			TmCl₂	YbCl₂
Color m.p. °C				green 841		brown 859	white 731			black dec.			green 718	green 720
Structure C.N.				PbCl₂ 9		PbCl₂ 9	PbCl₂ 9			SrBr₂			SrI₂ 7	SrI₂ 7
Dibromide				NdBr₂		SmBr₂	EuBr₂			DyBr₂			TmBr₂	YbBr₂
Color m.p. °C				green 725		brown 669	white 731			black			green	yellow 673
Structure C.N.				PbCl₂ 9		SrBr₂ 8	SrBr₂ 8			SrI₂ 7			SrI₂ 7	SrI₂ 7
Diiodide	LaI₂ metallic	CeI₂ metallic	PrI₂ metallic	NdI₂ high pressure metallic		SmI₂	EuI₂	GdI₂ metallic		DyI₂			TmI₂	YbI₂
Color m.p. °C		bronze 808	bronze 758	violet 562		green 520	green 580	bronze 831		purple 721			black 756	yellow 780	Lu
Structure C.N.	CuTi₂ 8	CuTi₂ 8	CuTi₂ 8	SrBr₂ 8 CuTi₂ 8		EuI₂ 7	EuI₂ 7	2H-MoS₂ 6					CdI₂ 6	CdI₂ 6
Ln₇I₁₂	La₇I₁₂		Pr₇I₁₂	'					Tb₇I₁₂
Sesquichloride	La₂Cl₃							Gd₂Cl₃	Tb₂Cl₃				Tm₂Cl₃		Lu₂Cl₃
Structure								Gd₂Cl₃	Gd₂Cl₃
Sesquibromide								Gd₂Br₃	Tb₂Br₃
Structure								Gd₂Cl₃	Gd₂Cl₃
Monoiodide	LaI^[19]
Structure	NiAs type

Application	Percentage
Catalytic converters	45%
Petroleum refining catalysts	25%
Permanent magnets	12%
Glass polishing and ceramics	7%
Metallurgical	7%
Phosphors	3%
Other	1%

The complex Gd(DOTA) is used in magnetic resonance imaging.

Donor	Excitation⇒Emission λ (nm)	Acceptor	Excitation⇒Emission λ (nm)	Stoke's Shift (nm)
Eu³⁺	340⇒615	Allophycocyanin	615⇒660	320
Tb³⁺	340⇒545	Phycoerythrin	545⇒575	235

Possible medical uses

Currently there is research showing that lanthanide elements can be used as anticancer agents. The main role of the lanthanides in these studies is to inhibit proliferation of the cancer cells. Specifically cerium and lanthanum have been studied for their role as anti-cancer agents.

One of the specific elements from the lanthanide group that has been tested and used is cerium (Ce). There have been studies that use a protein-cerium complex to observe the effect of cerium on the cancer cells. The hope was to inhibit cell proliferation and promote cytotoxicity.^[20] Transferrin receptors in cancer cells, such as those in breast cancer cells and epithelial cervical cells, promote the cell proliferation and malignancy of the cancer.^[20] Transferrin is a protein used to transport iron into the cells and is needed to aid the cancer cells in DNA replication. Transferrin acts as a growth factor for the cancerous cells and is dependent on iron. Cancer cells have much higher levels of transferrin receptors than normal cells and are very dependent on iron for their proliferation.^[20]

Cerium has shown results as an anti-cancer agent due to its similarities in structure and biochemistry to iron. Cerium may bind in the place of iron on to the transferrin and then be brought into the cancer cells by transferrin-receptor mediated endocytosis.^[20] The cerium binding to the transferrin in place of the iron inhibits the transferrin activity in the cell. This creates a toxic environment for the cancer cells and causes a decrease in cell growth. This is the proposed mechanism for cerium's effect on cancer cells, though the real mechanism may be more complex in how cerium inhibits cancer cell proliferation. Specifically in HeLa cancer cells studied in vitro, cell viability was decreased after 48 to 72 hours of cerium treatments. Cells treated with just cerium had decreases in cell viability, but cells treated with both cerium and transferrin had more significant inhibition for cellular activity.^[20]

Another specific element that has been tested and used as an anti-cancer agent is lanthanum, more specifically lanthanum chloride (LaCl₃). The lanthanum ion is used to affect the levels of let-7a and microRNAs miR-34a in a cell throughout the cell cycle. When the lanthanum ion was introduced to the cell in vivo or in vitro, it inhibited the rapid growth and induced apoptosis of the cancer cells (specifically cervical cancer cells). This effect was caused by the regulation of the let-7a and microRNAs by the lanthanum ions.^[21] The mechanism for this effect is still unclear but it is possible that the lanthanum is acting in a similar way as the cerium and binding to a ligand necessary for cancer cell proliferation.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biological effects

Due to their sparse distribution in the earth's crust and low aqueous solubility, the lanthanides have a low availability in the biosphere, and for a long time were not known to naturally form part of any biological molecules. In 2007 a novel methanol dehydrogenase that strictly uses lanthanides as enzymatic cofactors was discovered in a bacterium from the phylum Verrucomicrobia, Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum. This bacterium was found to survive only if there are lanthanides present in the environment.^[22] Compared to most other nondietary elements, non-radioactive lanthanides are classified as having low toxicity.^[23]

References

^ Krishnamurthy, Nagaiyar and Gupta, Chiranjib Kumar (2004) Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths, CRC Press, ISBN 0-415-33340-7
^ ^أ ^ب ^ت ^ث ^ج ^ح ^خ Greenwood, N. N. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edition ed.). Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Cullity, B. D. and Graham, C. D. (2011) Introduction to Magnetic Materials, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 9781118211496
^ ^أ ^ب ^ت ^ث Cotton, Simon (2006). Lanthanide and Actinide Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
^ Sroor, Farid M.A.; Edelmann, Frank T. (2012). "Lanthanides: Tetravalent Inorganic". Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry. doi:10.1002/9781119951438.eibc2033. ISBN 9781119951438.
^ Holleman, p. 1937.
^ dtv-Atlas zur Chemie 1981, Vol. 1, p. 220.
^ Bochkarev, Mikhail N.; Fedushkin, Igor L.; Fagin, Anatoly A.; Petrovskaya, Tatyana V.; Ziller, Joseph W.; Broomhall-Dillard, Randy N. R.; Evans, William J. (1997). "Synthesis and Structure of the First Molecular Thulium(II) Complex: [TmI₂(MeOCH₂CH₂OMe)₃]". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 36 (12): 133–135. doi:10.1002/anie.199701331.
^ Winter, Mark. "Lanthanum ionisation energies". WebElements Ltd, UK. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
^ ^أ ^ب Fukai, Y. (2005). The Metal-Hydrogen System, Basic Bulk Properties, 2d edition. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-00494-3.
^ Kohlmann, H.; Yvon, K. (2000). "The crystal structures of EuH₂ and EuLiH₃ by neutron powder diffraction". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 299 (1–2): L16–L20. doi:10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00818-X.
^ Matsuoka, T.; Fujihisa, H.; Hirao, N.; Ohishi, Y.; Mitsui, T.; Masuda, R.; Seto, M.; Yoda, Y.; Shimizu, K.; Machida, A.; Aoki, K. (2011). "Structural and Valence Changes of Europium Hydride Induced by Application of High-Pressure H₂". Physical Review Letters. 107 (2): 025501. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107b5501M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.025501. PMID 21797616.
^ Tellefsen, M.; Kaldis, E.; Jilek, E. (1985). "The phase diagram of the Ce-H₂ system and the CeH₂-CeH₃ solid solutions". Journal of the Less Common Metals. 110 (1–2): 107–117. doi:10.1016/0022-5088(85)90311-X.
^ Kumar, Pushpendra; Philip, Rosen; Mor, G. K.; Malhotra, L. K. (2002). "Influence of Palladium Overlayer on Switching Behaviour of Samarium Hydride Thin Films". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 41 (Part 1, No. 10): 6023–6027. Bibcode:2002JaJAP..41.6023K. doi:10.1143/JJAP.41.6023.
^ David A. Atwood, ed. (19 February 2013). The Rare Earth Elements: Fundamentals and Applications (eBook). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118632635.
^ Wells, A. F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). Oxford Science Publication. ISBN 978-0-19-855370-0.
^ Holleman, p. 1942
^ Perry, Dale L. (2011). Handbook of Inorganic Compounds, Second Edition. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-43981462-8. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
^ Ryazanov, Mikhail; Kienle, Lorenz; Simon, Arndt; Mattausch, Hansjürgen (2006). "New Synthesis Route to and Physical Properties of Lanthanum Monoiodide†". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (5): 2068–2074. doi:10.1021/ic051834r. PMID 16499368.
^ ^أ ^ب ^ت ^ث ^ج Palizban, A. A.; Sadeghi-aliabadi, H.; Abdollahpour, F. (1 January 2010). "Effect of cerium lanthanide on Hela and MCF-7 cancer cell growth in the presence of transferring". Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 5 (2): 119–125. PMC 3093623. PMID 21589800.
^ Yu, Lingfang; Xiong, Jieqi; Guo, Ling; Miao, Lifang; Liu, Sisun; Guo, Fei (2015). "The effects of lanthanum chloride on proliferation and apoptosis of cervical cancer cells: involvement of let-7a and miR-34a microRNAs". BioMetals. 28 (5): 879–890. doi:10.1007/s10534-015-9872-6. PMID 26209160. S2CID 15715889.
^ Pol, A., et al (2014). "Rare Earth Metals Are Essential for Methanotrophic Life in Volcanic Mudpots". Environ Microbiol. 16 (1): 255–264. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12249. PMID 24034209.
^ McGill, Ian (2005) "Rare Earth Elements" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_607.

Cited sources

Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (2007). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in الألمانية) (102 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017770-1.

وصلات خارجية

lanthanide Sparkle Model, used in the computational chemistry of lanthanide complexes
USGS Rare Earths Statistics and Information
Ana de Bettencourt-Dias: Chemistry of the lanthanides and lanthanide-containing materials
Eric Scerri, 2007, The periodic table: Its story and its significance, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 9780195305739

[1] Krishnamurthy, Nagaiyar and Gupta, Chiranjib Kumar (2004) Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths, CRC Press, ISBN 0-415-33340-7

[Greenwood&Earnshaw-2] أ ^ب ^ت ^ث ^ج ^ح ^خ Greenwood, N. N. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edition ed.). Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[3] Cullity, B. D. and Graham, C. D. (2011) Introduction to Magnetic Materials, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 9781118211496

[CottonSA2006-4] أ ^ب ^ت ^ث Cotton, Simon (2006). Lanthanide and Actinide Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

[SroorEdelmann2012-5] Sroor, Farid M.A.; Edelmann, Frank T. (2012). "Lanthanides: Tetravalent Inorganic". Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry. doi:10.1002/9781119951438.eibc2033. ISBN 9781119951438.

[HOWI1-6] Holleman, p. 1937.

[dtv1-7] tv-Atlas zur Chemie 1981, Vol. 1, p. 220.

[BochkarevFedushkin1997-8] Bochkarev, Mikhail N.; Fedushkin, Igor L.; Fagin, Anatoly A.; Petrovskaya, Tatyana V.; Ziller, Joseph W.; Broomhall-Dillard, Randy N. R.; Evans, William J. (1997). "Synthesis and Structure of the First Molecular Thulium(II) Complex: [TmI₂(MeOCH₂CH₂OMe)₃]". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 36 (12): 133–135. doi:10.1002/anie.199701331.

[9] Winter, Mark. "Lanthanum ionisation energies". WebElements Ltd, UK. Retrieved 2 September 2010.

[Fukai-10] أ ^ب Fukai, Y. (2005). The Metal-Hydrogen System, Basic Bulk Properties, 2d edition. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-00494-3.

[KohlmannYvon2000-11] Kohlmann, H.; Yvon, K. (2000). "The crystal structures of EuH₂ and EuLiH₃ by neutron powder diffraction". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 299 (1–2): L16–L20. doi:10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00818-X.

[MatsuokaFujihisa2011-12] Matsuoka, T.; Fujihisa, H.; Hirao, N.; Ohishi, Y.; Mitsui, T.; Masuda, R.; Seto, M.; Yoda, Y.; Shimizu, K.; Machida, A.; Aoki, K. (2011). "Structural and Valence Changes of Europium Hydride Induced by Application of High-Pressure H₂". Physical Review Letters. 107 (2): 025501. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107b5501M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.025501. PMID 21797616.

[TellefsenKaldis1985-13] Tellefsen, M.; Kaldis, E.; Jilek, E. (1985). "The phase diagram of the Ce-H₂ system and the CeH₂-CeH₃ solid solutions". Journal of the Less Common Metals. 110 (1–2): 107–117. doi:10.1016/0022-5088(85)90311-X.

[KumarPhilip2002-14] Kumar, Pushpendra; Philip, Rosen; Mor, G. K.; Malhotra, L. K. (2002). "Influence of Palladium Overlayer on Switching Behaviour of Samarium Hydride Thin Films". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 41 (Part 1, No. 10): 6023–6027. Bibcode:2002JaJAP..41.6023K. doi:10.1143/JJAP.41.6023.

[Atwood-15] David A. Atwood, ed. (19 February 2013). The Rare Earth Elements: Fundamentals and Applications (eBook). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118632635.

[Wells-16] Wells, A. F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). Oxford Science Publication. ISBN 978-0-19-855370-0.

[Holleman-17] Holleman, p. 1942

[Handbook-18] Perry, Dale L. (2011). Handbook of Inorganic Compounds, Second Edition. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-43981462-8. Retrieved 17 February 2014.

[RyazanovKienle2006-19] Ryazanov, Mikhail; Kienle, Lorenz; Simon, Arndt; Mattausch, Hansjürgen (2006). "New Synthesis Route to and Physical Properties of Lanthanum Monoiodide†". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (5): 2068–2074. doi:10.1021/ic051834r. PMID 16499368.

[Palizban_119–125-20] أ ^ب ^ت ^ث ^ج Palizban, A. A.; Sadeghi-aliabadi, H.; Abdollahpour, F. (1 January 2010). "Effect of cerium lanthanide on Hela and MCF-7 cancer cell growth in the presence of transferring". Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 5 (2): 119–125. PMC 3093623. PMID 21589800.

[21] Yu, Lingfang; Xiong, Jieqi; Guo, Ling; Miao, Lifang; Liu, Sisun; Guo, Fei (2015). "The effects of lanthanum chloride on proliferation and apoptosis of cervical cancer cells: involvement of let-7a and miR-34a microRNAs". BioMetals. 28 (5): 879–890. doi:10.1007/s10534-015-9872-6. PMID 26209160. S2CID 15715889.

[22] Pol, A., et al (2014). "Rare Earth Metals Are Essential for Methanotrophic Life in Volcanic Mudpots". Environ Microbiol. 16 (1): 255–264. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12249. PMID 24034209.

[Ullmann-23] McGill, Ian (2005) "Rare Earth Elements" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_607.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

v t e الجدول الدوري
Standard form	Periodic table (18 columns) With large cells 18 columns wide 32 columns wide
Extended form	Extension beyond the 7th period Fricke model Pyykkö model Extended form, large cells
Alternative structure	Alternatives Chemical Galaxy Janet's Left Step table
Groups	1 (Alkali metals) 2 (Alkaline earth metals) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 (Boron group) 14 (Carbon group) 15 (Pnictogens) 16 (Chalcogens) 17 (Halogens) 18 (Noble gases)
Periods	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Blocks	s-block p-block d-block f-block g-block
Metals–nonmetals	Metals Metalloids dividing line Nonmetals Subgroups: Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanides Actinides Superactinides Eka-superactinides Transition metals Other metals Metalloids Polyatomic nonmetals Diatomic nonmetals Noble gases
History	History of the periodic table Element discoveries Mendeleev's predictions Name etymology controversies places scientists
Element properties	Atomic weights Crystal structure Dietary elements Electron affinities Electron configurations Electronegativity by Allen scale Electronegativity by Pauling scale Goldschmidt classification Maximum valences Nutritional elements Platinum group metals (PGM) Rare earth elements Refractory metals
قائمة العناصر حسب	الوفرة (في البشر) الخصائص الذرية الاستقرار النووي الانتاج الرمز
صفحات بيانات	Abundances Atomic radii Boiling points Critical points Densities Elastic properties Electrical resistivities Electron affinities Electron configurations Electronegativities Hardnesses Heat capacities Heats of fusion Heats of vaporization Ionization energies Melting points Oxidation states Speeds of sound Thermal conductivities Thermal expansion coefficients Vapor pressures
انظر أيضاً	Names for sets of chemical elements IUPAC nomenclature systematic element name Trivial name Dmitri Mendeleev Periodic table (simplified Chinese) Periodic table (traditional Chinese)
Book Category Chemistry Portal

v t e الجداول الدورية
الصيغ القياسية	الجدول الدوري مضغوط ممتد f-block in-line, large
الصيغة الممتدة	Extension beyond the 7th period Pyykkö model compact Extended form, large Pyykkö model
البنية البديلة	البدائ مجرة كيميائية جدول جانت مضغوط
خصائص العنصر	الوزن الذري البنية البلورية Dietary elements Electron affinities Electron configurations Electronegativity by Allen scale Electronegativity by Pauling scale Goldschmidt classification Maximum valences Nutritional elements Platinum group metals (PGM) العناصر الأرضية النادرة Refractory metals
قائمة العناصر الكيميائية حسب	التوافر (في البشر) الخصائص الذرية الاستقرار الذري الانتاج الرمز
صفحات بيانات	التوافر نصف القطر الذري نقاط الغليان النقاط الحرجة الكثافة خصائص المرونة المقاومة الكهربية إنجذابات الإلكترون الموصلات الإلكترونية السلببة الكهربية الصلابة قدرات الحرارة حرارة الانصهار حرارة البخر طاقات التأين نقاط الانصهار حالات الأكسدة سرعة الصوت موصلات حرارية معاملات التمدد الحراري ضغط البخار
المجموعات	1 (فلزات قلوية) 2 (فلزات قلوية ترابية) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 (مجموعة بورون) 14 (مجموعة كربون) 15 (Pnictogens) 16 (Chalcogens) 17 (هالوجينات) 18 (غازات نبيلة)
الفلزات–اللافلزات	الفلزات أشباه الفلزات الخط الفاصل اللافلزات مجموعات فرعية: الفلزات القلوية الفلزات القلوية الترابية اللانثنيدات الأكتينيدات الفوق أكتينيدات Eka-superactinides الفلزات الإنتقالية Metalloids الفلزات الضعيفة Polyatomic nonmetals Diatomic nonmetals الغازات النبيلة
المستويات	عناصر مستوى فرعي s عناصر مستوى فرعي p عناصر مستوى فرعي d عناصر مستوى فرعي f عناصر مستوى فرعي g
الدورات	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
أبجديات أخرى	الجدول الدوري (الصينية المبسطة) الجدول الدوري (الصينية التقليدية)
التاريخ	اكتشافات العناصر تاريخ الجدول الدوري أصل التسمية جدل أماكن علماء
انظر أيضاً	دميتري مندليڤ Collective names of groups of like elements ايوپاك مسميات الوحدات اسم عنصر قياسي Trivial name
كتب تصنيف بوابة الكيمياء

الخصائص الطبيعية للعناصر

Chemistry and compounds

Effect of 4f orbitals

Lanthanide oxidation states

Hydrides

Halides

Possible medical uses

Biological effects

See also

References

Cited sources

وصلات خارجية