تمرد قومول

Kumul Rebellion
جزء من حروب شين‌جيانگ
Uyğur üsyançıları, 1930-cu il.jpg
المتمردون الأويغور
التاريخ4 أبريل 1931 – 1934
الموقع
شين‌جيانگ، الصين
النتيجة Stalemate; leading to more fighting in the حروب شين‌جيانگ
المتحاربون
الصين
Ma Clique
خانية قومول		 Xinjiang clique
White Movement
Flag of الاتحاد السوڤيتي الاتحاد السوڤيتي		 تركستان الشرقية
دعمها
Young Turks
Flag of إمبراطورية اليابان إمبراطورية اليابان[1]
Flag of المملكة المتحدة المملكة المتحدة[2]
Afghanistan[3]
القادة والزعماء
Chiang Kai-Shek
Ma Zhongying
Ma Hushan
Ma Zhancang
Zhang Peiyuan
Huang Shaohong
Yulbars Khan
Khoja Niyas
Kamal Efendi		 Jin Shuren
Zhang Peiyuan
Sheng Shicai
Khoja Niyas
Pavel Pappengut
Ma Shaowu (Anti Russian)
الاتحاد السوڤيتي Joseph Stalin
الاتحاد السوڤيتي Mikhail Frinovsky[4]

جمهورية تركستان الشرقية الأولى Muhammad Amin Bughra
جمهورية تركستان الشرقية الأولى Abdullah Bughra †
جمهورية تركستان الشرقية الأولى Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra †
جمهورية تركستان الشرقية الأولى Osman Ali
جمهورية تركستان الشرقية الأولى Tawfiq Bey
جمهورية تركستان الشرقية الأولى Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
الدولة العثمانية Mustafa Ali Bay

الدولة العثمانية Muhsin Çapanolu
الدولة العثمانية Mahmud Nadim Bay
إمبراطورية اليابان Hirohito
الوحدات المشاركة
  • White Russian soldiers
  • Provincial Chinese troops
  • Chinese Muslim troops
    		•
  • Turkic Khotanlik Uyghur
  • Kirghiz Rebels
  • Afghan mujahideen
    • القوى
    Around 10,000 Chinese Muslim cavalry and infantry
    15,000 Chinese
    Several thousand Kumul Khanate loyalists    		 Several thousand White Russian soldiers and Provincial Chinese troops, Some Chinese Muslim troops Thousands of Turkic Khotanlik Uyghur, Kirghiz Rebels and Afghan volunteers
    الضحايا والخسائر
    unknown Thousands dead Thousands dead

    تمرد قومول (صينية: 哈密暴動؛ پن‌ين: Hāmì bàodòng�؛ "انتفاضة هامي"؛ إنگليزية: Kumul Rebellion) كان تمرداً للأويغور القومول من 1931 حتى 1934 who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim Gen. Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren, governor of Xinjiang. The Kumul Uyghurs were loyalists of the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the Khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. Various groups rebelled, and were not united (some even fought each other). The main part of the war was waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government. He was supported by Chiang Kai-shek, the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang.

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    خلفية

    التاريخ

    In the late Middle Ages, the Uyghurs living in the Hamian depression created their own state, the Kumul Khanate . [1] The Kumul khans who ruled the feudal Turkish state were direct descendants of the khans of the Chagatai nation.

    The Ming Dynasty , which ruled China, established relations at the level of tribute with the Kumul Khanate (also known as Kara-Del), which played a major role in the conflict between the Turfans and the Min. The khanate paid tribute to Min. When Said Baba was Khan, the Kumul Khanate helped the Chinese Muslims who supported the Min Dynasty during the rebellion of the Sin Dynasty against the Min Dynasty in 1646 . After the defeat of the supporters of Min and the killing of the Kumul prince Turumtai by the Sin army in the battles, the Kumul khanate accepted the rule of the Sin dynasty.

    Starting from 1647, the Kumul Khans submitted to the Sin Dynasty and began paying tribute. Since 1696, the Chinese emperors gave the title " Forbidden Tarkhan " to Kumul Khans for their loyal service. [2] [3] [4]

    When Xinjiang became a province after the Dungan Rebellion in 1884, Kumul continued to be a vassal khanate. [5] .

    The Khans also received the title Qinwang ("prince of the first rank") from the Emperor of Sin. The khans received extensive powers from the Sin court, except for execution orders. The death sentence could only be given by the Chinese official sitting in Kumul. [6] [7] The khans were officially vassals of the Chinese emperor and had to travel to Beijing every six years to personally serve the emperor . [8] [9]

    The Chinese called Kumul Hami. [10] The Khans maintained friendly relations with the Imperial court and Chinese officials. [11]

    The Kumul Khans, Muhammad Khan and his successor, Shah Maqsud, imposed heavy taxes and forced labor on their subjects. This led to two rebellions against their rule in 1907 and 1912. [12]

    Khan was assisted by a vizier in the administration of the state. Son Khan Shah Maqsud appointed Hami prince Yulbars Khan as prime minister. [13] .

    أسباب التمرد

    Shin Shuzen, governor of Xinjiang in 1928-1933

    Khan continued to pay tribute to the Xinjiang government in Urumqi . [14] . Yang Zengxin, the governor of Xinjiang, was a monarchist in spirit and did not interfere in the affairs of the khanate. Therefore, Khan maintained friendly relations with Shah Maqsud. It was the existence of the khanate that prevented the Uyghurs from rebelling. Thus, the khanate government itself had the same nationality and religion as them. [15] .

    In 1928, Yang Zengxin died. Shin Shuzen became the new governor of Xinjiang. Shuzen followed a different policy than his predecessor. He began to implement a policy of Chineseizing the region and strengthening ties with the central government, the Homindan . Traditional trade with Turkestan was reduced, which led to a significant reduction in the market for livestock products of the local population and a significant increase in the price of industrial goods. [16] .

    Han refugees from Gansu, Shuzen 's native land , created several combat-capable military units. To pay for the new army he had created, Shin began minting and circulating unsecured money, which fueled inflation; raised taxes and introduced a number of state monopolies. Wide application of monopoly led to high price increase of necessary goods. Not content with this, Shin replaced the command of the army with people he trusted, changed all the regional chiefs, removed some of the regional governors and the most unreliable officials, and tried to fill their positions with relatives and natives from Gansu. This was done at the expense of the removal of officials from the local population.

    After the death of Khan Shah Maqsud in 1930 , Shin Shuzen divided the Khanate into three provinces, the administrative regions of Hami, Ie and Yiwu. New taxes were imposed on the territory of the abolished khanate and Chinese administrators were appointed. Tax collectors, taking advantage of the lack of control, began to demand illegal money in addition to official taxes, which completely bankrupted the peasants. The troops brought here during the Yang Zengxing period began to support themselves by robbing the local population due to poor provision of supplies. Land was allocated to Gansu refugees at the expense of local Uighur villagers. Shuzen's appointment of close relatives and locals from Gansu led to an increase in cases of bribery and abuse. [16]Both the abolition of the khanate and all this led to the participation of large sections of the population - local aristocrats, Muslim clergy, merchants, artisans and peasants - in the coming uprising under anti-Chinese, pan-Islamic and pan-Turkist slogans. During this time, Yulbars Khan tried to return Nasir to the throne as the heir.

    البداية

    حاجي نيازي خوجة، زعيم التمرد.

    The rebellion began in April 1931, when a Chinese tax collector, a commander of a Chinese military unit, attempted to forcibly take possession of a Uyghur girl in Xiaobao. [18] [19] The Chinese gang leader and his gang were killed, the district chief's office was destroyed, and 200-300 Uyghur villagers began killing Chinese in the city. They then moved towards Hamin with the intention of capturing it, but the local garrison repulsed the attack and the rebels fled to the mountains.

    At the same time, a group of Kazakhs who managed to seize it and the arsenal of the city garrison rose up in the territory of Barkul city. Upon learning of the approach of the government troops, the Kazakh rebels also fled to the mountains, where they joined forces with the Uyghurs. Soon local villagers joined them. The armed group, which increased in number to 2 thousand people, attacked Hami and captured the city in May.

    The rebels were joined by local feudal lords who were dissatisfied with the rule of Shin Shuzen, who would later become the leader of the rebellion. Niyazi Khoja, who managed the Kumul Khanate 's economy, and Yulbars Khan, the former Kumul Khan's advisor and chief of security, invited General Ma Chong, commander of the Huey cavalry [ 16] with 800 warriors, from Gansu for help. [20] Before leaving for Xinjiang, Ma signed a secret agreement with the Homindan , who were unhappy with Xi's rule. So, in case of victory over Shuzen, Ma would replace him and take the post of governor of Xinjiang . [21] In a short time, he joined the Uyghurs who rebelled and other peoples living in the province. Hueys,along with the Kazakhs , Dzungars, and Kyrgyz , Khans and Tatars took part in the rebellion.

    Ma joined the Kumul rebels, Huyin and Uighur groups moved on Khotan and Yarkand . In Khotan, the rebels led by the Bughra brothers and Sabit Damolla established the Khotan Emirate. [22] The rebellion spread to the districts of Turfan and Barkul , led by the wealthy merchant Maqsud Muhit . [23] In the spring of 1931, the rebellion swept almost the entire province. The rebels were supported by Great Britain and the Empire of Japan , and among the rebels there were young Turkish immigrants as instructors.

    الخلفية المباشرة

    Gov. Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after the assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Gov. Yang Zengxin (Yang Tseng-sin) in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of Turkic peoples and openly antagonized them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin had Chinese Muslims in his provincial army like Ma Shaowu.

    In 1930 Jin annexed the Kumul Khanate, a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The newly subjected Kumulliks' land was expropriated by the government and given to Chinese settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931, and many Chinese were massacred by the local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province. Yulbars Khan, advisor at the Kumul court, appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Muslim warlord in Gansu Province, to overthrow Jin and restore the Khanate.

    Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to government forces there. Although he was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October in a battle in which Jin's force included 250 White Russian troops whom he had recruited from the Ili valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War), Ma withdrew his forces to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French, whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave the Xinjiang Muslims to fight Jin alone.

    Ma Zhongying had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang—if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang.[5]

    Ma's forces committed atrocities against both Han and Uyghur civilians in Xinjiang during the fighting. He conscripted Han and Uyghurs into his army to use as cannon fodder, while all the officers were Hui. The Soviet Union and Sheng Shicai claimed that Ma Zhongying was being supported by the Japanese and also claimed to have captured Japanese officers serving with his army. Despite this, Ma officially proclaimed his allegiance to the Chinese government in Nanjing.

    Some scholars describe a Han officer forcing a Uyghur woman to submit to marrying him as the event that triggered the rebellion.[6][7]

    العون السوڤيتي لحكومة شين‌جيانگ الإقليمية

    Jin bought two biplanes from the Soviet Union in September 1931 at 40,000 Mexican silver dollars each. They were equipped with machine guns and bombs and flown by Russian pilots. He signed a secret treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1931 that quickly led to suppression of the Kumul Rebellion and the deblockading of Kumul by provincial troops on November 30, 1931. Jin Shuren received large gold credits from the Soviet government for acquiring arms and weapons from the Soviet army and opening Soviet trade agencies in eight provincial towns: Ghulja, Chuguchak, Altai, Urumqi, Karashahr, Kucha, Aksu, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan. The Kuomintang found out about this the following year and decided to openly back Ma Zhongying in his war against Jin Shuren.

    Ma was officially appointed Commanding Officer of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed.[8][9][10]

    التوسع

    Turkish Uyghur soldiers of the forcibly mobilized 36th Division waving Homindan flags near Kumul

    There was no unity among the rebels. Despite the insistence of the Huey , the people of Kumul, who chased away the Chinese troops , did not want to continue the attack. Yulbars Khan quarreled with Niyazi Khoja and went to Ma Shong with 170 supporters.

    In 1932, a group of Hueys from Ma Chong's group bypassed the Chinese garrisons and entered the Turfan region, where the population was revolting. The leader of the group, Ma Shimin (Ma Chong's assistant), subjugated the rebel Turfans and prepared to attack Urumqi to the north. He also began strong preparations to quell the rumored uprisings in Aksu and Uç-Turfan regions to the southwest. However, Turfan was attacked by Chinese units and Cossack regiments located in the east. By March 1933, the Turfan region was cleared of rebels who were divided into three groups and operated independently. The first group that stayed in Turfan disbanded in a short time. The group sent to capture Urumqi in February was also disintegrated under the blows of the government troops. A part of this group threatened Urumqi from the southHe remained in Tien-Shan , the other went north-east towards Jimsar. The third one moved towards the city of Shikho-Manas in the western direction. The Kazakhs who were part of the last group separated from them and went independently to the northwest, to Altai. They also pushed the Abak-beys to revolt in Altai. Thus, in the spring of 1933, the gentlemen overthrew the Chinese government in the region. The main part of the third group of Hueys under the command of Ma Tsizhu went to Kashgar, on the way they were joined by Uighur rebels led by Timurbey and small groups from the villages and towns of Kashgar.

    With the approach of the rebels to Kashgar, the local Kyrgyz and at the same time the Basmachi immigrants from Fergana , who started a struggle for power between their leaders, also rose up in rebellion. At the same time, the Huey's behavior in Kashgar caused confusion among the people. So, even if they overthrew the Chinese government, they did not touch the Chinese officials and kept the previous old order in place. Chauvinism, discrimination, brutal exploitation and oppression by Ma Shimin against all non-Huey alienated the Uyghurs from the Hueys. The harsh regime they created, a large number of executions and forced mobilization led to a part of the Uyghurs in the Urumqi region moving to the side of the government.


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    الانقلاب العسكري في شين‌جيانگ

    Shen Shitsai was the governor of Xinjiang in 1933-1944.

    In the winter of 1933, the Huey who remained in Xinjiang continued to attack Urumqi under the command of Ma Shimin and Ma Fuming . Relying on the forces of General Ma Du and in March 1933, the White Guard units brought from the USSR, General Shen Shitsai, the commander of the Xinjiang troops in the Turfan region, staged a military coup with the forces of the 1st Russian regiment under the command of PPPappengut. Shen Shitsai overthrew Governor Shin Shuzen on April 12 and seized power with the help of the Russians. He fled first to Chuguchag , then to Tianjin , where he was captured, taken to Nanking, and convicted of having signed an undecided treaty with the USSR .

    The Nanjing government sent Huan Musu to Xinjiang with additional powers to pacify the region and appoint him commander of the provincial military units. However , when he arrived in Urumqi , he found that Huan Musu's position had been taken by Shen Shisai. Huan Musun, who recognized Shen Shitsai as the so-called governor, began to act against him. But the conspiracy was revealed. Huan Musun managed to fly to Nanjing, but the remaining conspirators in Xinjiang were executed.

    The new governor sent representatives to the USSR to receive material, financial and military assistance and appealed to the Kumul rebels with a peace proposal. Equality of all nationalities living in the province, political freedoms and measures to improve the economic condition of the people were announced. Under the pressure of the USSR, an actual agreement was reached with Niyazi Khoja on the acceptance of this program. However, this step of Niyazi Khoja was not supported by the leaders of Kashgar and Khotan rebels.

    Ma Shong returned to East Turkistan in 1933. Ma's army used the Hominda's blue sky flag with the white sun reflected in it, and the Hominda's white flag in the blue sky. He himself wore a Homindan armband and wore the uniform of the 36th Division to show that he was the legitimate representative of the Chinese government. [27] Huey Ma Ying-piao, Barkul's military commander, hated by both the Turks (Uighurs) and the Chinese for his harsh treatment, abuse of power, and brutality, was punished by Ma Chong. [28]

    As soon as Ma returned to Xinjiang, he captured Kumul. [29] [30] However, he completely discredited himself among the dunes. So, his subordinates began to engage in robbery and looting. Moreover, Chong's mobilization of Uyghurs into the infantry under the leadership of Han officers caused serious dissatisfaction among the local population. At the same time, Ma managed to persuade Zan Pei, the head of the Ili region, to oppose the Xinjiang government.

    انتفاضة منفصلة للأويغور

    Map showing the claimed territory of the East Turkestan Republic (shaded red) within the Republic of China.

    A separate Uyghur uprising at Khotan in southern Xinjiang broke out. These Uyghurs were not like the Kumul Uyghurs, who only wanted the Kumul Khanate restored and Jin Shuren to be overthrown. They were led by Muhammad Amin Bughra and his brothers Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. These rebels wanted total independence and hated both Han Chinese and Chinese Muslims. Their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki, called for the expulsion of Chinese Muslims (Tungans) in a proclamation:

    The Tungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans also. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since the Tungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers...From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages, etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colours yellow and black are foul...They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down the yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan!

    [11][12]

    This rebellion became entangled with the Kumul rebellion, when a Chinese Muslim and Uyghur army under Ma Zhancang and Timur Beg marched on Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu and his garrison of Han Chinese troops. Ma Shaowu began to panic and started raising Kirghiz levies under Osman Ali to defend the city. The Kirghiz were not amused at how their rebellion was crushed the previous year by Ma Shaowu, and now he wanted them to defend the city. They defected en masse to the enemy. However, Ma Zhancang also entered into secret negotiations with Ma Shaowu; he and his troops soon defected to the Han Chinese garrison in the city.

    During the Battle of Kashgar (1933) the city changed hands multiple times as the confused factions battled each other. The Kirghiz began to murder any Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, and fighting broke out in the streets. Timur Beg became sympathetic to the pro-independence rebels of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki, while Ma Zhancang proclaimed his allegiance to the Chinese Kuomintang government and notified everyone that all former Chinese officials would keep their posts.

    Ma Zhancang arranged for Timur Beg to be killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque.[13][14]

    المسيحيون والهندوس

    The Bughras applied Shariah law while ejecting Khotan-based Swedish missionaries.[15] They demanded the withdrawal of the Swedish missionaries while enacting Shariah on March 16. 1933.[16] In the name of Islam, Uyghur leader Amir Abdullah Bughra violently assaulted the Yarkand-based Swedish missionaries and would have executed them; however, they ended up only being banished thanks to the British interceding in their favor.[17] There were beheadings and executions of Muslims who had converted to Christianity at the hands of the Amir's followers.[18]

    Several hundred Uighur Muslims had been converted to Christianity by the Swedes. Imprisonment and execution were inflicted on Uighur Christian converts and, after refusing to give up his Christian religion, they executed the convert Uighur Habil in 1933.[19] The East Turkestan Republic banished the Swedish missionaries and tortured and jailed Christian converts, mainly Kirghiz and Uighurs.[20] The openly Islamic East Turkestan Republic forcibly ejected the Swedish missionaries and was openly hostile to Christianity while espousing a Muslim Turkic ideology.[21] The East Turkestan Republic subjected former Muslim Christian converts like Joseph Johannes Khan to jail, torture and abuse after he refused to give up Christianity in favor of Islam. After the British interceded to free Khan, he was instead forced to leave his land and in November 1933 he came to Peshawar.[22]

    The Swedish Mission Society ran a printing operation.[23] Life of East Turkestan was the state-run media of the rebels. The Bughra lead government used the Swedish Mission Press to print and distribute the media.[24]

    The killings of two Hindus at the hands of Uighurs took place in Shamba Bazaar.[25] Plundering of the valuables of slaughtered Indian Hindus happened in Posgam on March 25 and on the previous day in Karghalik at the hands of Uighurs.[26] Killings of Hindus took place in Khotan at the hands of the Bughra Amirs.[27] Antagonism against both the Hindus ran high among the Muslim Turkic Uyghur rebels in Xinjiang's southern area. Muslims plundered the possessions in Karghalik of Rai Sahib Dip Chand, who was the aksakal of Britain, and his fellow Hindus on March 24, 1933, and in Keryia they slaughtered Indian Hindus.[28] Sindh's Shikarpur district was the origin of the Hindu diaspora there. The slaughter of the Indian Hindus was called the "Karghalik Outrage". The Muslims had killed nine of them.[29] The forced removal of the Swedes was accompanied by the slaughter of Hindus in Khotan by the Islamic Turkic rebels.[30] The Emirs of Khotan killed the Hindus as they forced the Swedes out and declared Shariah in Khotan on March 16, 1933.[16]

    Hostility towards Hindus predated the establishment of the Islamic republic. Han Chinese men, Hindu men, Armenian men, Jewish men and Russian men were married by Uyghur Muslim women who could not find husbands.[31] Uyghur merchants would harass Hindu usurers by screaming at them asking them if they ate beef or hanging cow skins on their quarters. Uyghur men also rioted and attacked Hindus for marrying Uyghur women in 1907 in Poskam and Yarkand like Ditta Ram calling for their beheading and stoning as they engaged in anti-Hindu violence.[32] Hindu Indian usurers engaging in a religious procession led to violence against them by Muslim Uyghurs.[33] In 1896 two Uyghur Turkis attacked a Hindu merchant and the British consul Macartney demanded the Uyghurs be punished by flogging.[34]

    Mass Defections

    Mass defections occurred on all three sides during the rebellion. Ma Zhancang and his Chinese Muslim army were originally allied to Timur Beg and his Uyghur army while marching on Kashgar. Zhancang and his army, however, defected to Muslim commander Ma Shaowu and his Han army and fought against Timur Beg and the Uyghurs. The Kyrgyz levies under Osman Ali were originally allied to Chinese Muslim commander Ma Shaowu and his Han army, but they defected to Timur Beg's Uyghurs at the same time Ma Zhancang defected to Ma Shaowu. Han Gen. Zhang Peiyuan and his Han Chinese Ili army originally fought for the provincial government under Jin Shuren against Ma Zhongying. However, Zhang Peiyuan and his Han army defected to Ma Zhongying and his Muslim army in 1933 and joined him in fighting the provincial government under Sheng Shicai and the Soviets and White Russians. Khoja Niyaz and his Kumulik Uyghur army defected from Ma Zhongying's side to the provincial government and the Soviets and received weapons from the Soviets.

    Ma Zhongying returns

    Gen. Ma Zhongying, KMT 36th Division Chief. He is wearing a Kuomintang armband like many of his troops did.
    Turkic Uyghur soldiers who were forcibly conscripted into the 36th Division waving Kuomintang flags near Kumul

    Ma Zhongying returned to Xinjiang in 1933 to continue the war.[35][36]

    Ma used Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun banners in his army and Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun armbands. He himself wore a Kuomintang armband and a new36th Division uniform to show that he was the legitimate representative of the Chinese government.[37]

    Due to his severe abuse and brutality, both the Turkic (Uyghurs) and Han Chinese hated the Hui officer who was in charge of Barkul—Ma Ying-piao, whom Ma Zhongying had put in place.[38]

    Kumul was easily taken, as were other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces retreated to Urumchi. Ground was alternately gained and lost by both sides. During this time Ma's forces became notorious for their cruelty to both Turkic and Chinese inhabitants, destroying the economy and engaging in wholesale looting and burning of villages. Once seen as a liberator by the Turkic population, which had suffered greatly under Jin Shuren, many Turkic inhabitants of the region now ardently hoped for Ma's expulsion by Sheng Shicai and an end to the seesaw military campaigns by both sides. Ma also forcibly conscripted Uyghurs into his army, turning them into infantry while only Chinese Muslims were allowed to be officers. This led to outrage among the Uyghurs at Kumul. Meanwhile, the Han Chinese commander of Ili, Zhang Peiyuan, entered into secret negotiations with Ma Zhongying, and the two joined their armies together against Jin Shuren and the Russians.

    Huang Mu-sung, native of Kumul and a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Kuomintang government, soon arrived in Urumchi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. He turned out to be correct, since the Kuomintang secretly ordered Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan to attack Sheng's regime in Urumchi. As a result, he executed three leaders of the provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang.

    Chiang Kai-shek sent Luo Wen'gan to Xinjiang, Luo met with Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan and urged them to destroy Sheng.[39]

    Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan then began a joint attack on Sheng's Manchurian and White Russian force during the Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34). Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital.[40] Sheng Shicai commanded Manchurian and White Russian troops commanded by Col. Pappengut.[41][42]

    Ma and Zhang's Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim forces were on the verge of defeating Sheng when he requested help from the Soviet Union. This led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang and Ma Zhongying's retreat after the Battle of Tutung. Kamal Kaya Efendi, a former Ottoman Turkish military officer who was Ma Zhongying's chief of staff, was captured by Soviet agents in Kumul in 1934, but instead of being executed he was made Commissar for Road Construction in Xinjiang, possibly because he was a Soviet agent himself.

    In January 1934 Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area in the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Zhang Peiyuan's forces were defeated and he committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Zhongying's troops were forced to retreat from the Soviet military machine's aerial bombing and were pushed back from Urumchi during the Battle of Tutung.[43] Soviet assistance resulted in a rare White Russian and Soviet temporary military alliance against Ma. Ma wiped out a Soviet armored car column at the Battle of Dawan Cheng.

    Ma's retreating forces began advancing down to southern Xinjiang to destroy the First East Turkestan Republic. He sent out an advance guard under Ma Fuyuan to attack the Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz at Kashgar. At this point Chiang Kai-shek was ready to send Huang Shaohong and his expeditionary force of 15,000 troops to assist Ma Zhongying against Sheng, but when Chiang heard about the Soviet invasion he decided to withdraw to avoid an international incident if his troops directly engaged the Soviets.[44]

    Georg Vasel, a German, was told by his White Russian driver when meeting Ma Zhongying, "Must I tell him that I am a Russian? You know how the Tungans hate the Russians."[45]


    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    Destruction of the First East Turkestan Republic

    Chinese Muslim rifleman of the new 36th Division during training.

    The Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz had conspired to form an independent regime.

    On February 20, 1933, the Committee for National Revolution set up a provisional Khotan government with Sabit as prime minister and Muhammad Amin Bughra as head of the armed forces. It favored the establishment of an Islamic theocracy.[46][47][48]

    Afghan King Mohammad Zahir Shah provided weapons and support to the East Turkestan Republic. Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union accused Ma Zhongying, a Muslim and ardently anti-Soviet, of being used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with Manchukuo. Sheng claimed that he captured two Japanese officers on Ma's staff. However, not a single claim of Sheng's could be proven, and he did not provide any evidence for his allegations that Ma was colluding with the Japanese. Ma Zhongying publicly declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang at Nanjing. Ma himself was given permission by the Kuomintang to invade Xinjiang.

    Western traveler Peter Fleming speculated that the Soviet Union was not in Xinjiang to keep out the Japanese but to create their own sphere of influence.[49]

    The Chinese Muslim forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang's forces in Kashgar, allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934, to Yengi Hissar, south of the city. The Hui army crushed the Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934), Battle of Yarkand and Battle of Yangi Hissar.

    Japanese attempt to set up a puppet state

    The Japanese invited an Ottoman prince, Abdulkerim, and several anti-Atatürk Young Turk exiles from Turkey to assist them in setting up a puppet state in Xinjiang with the Ottoman Prince as Sultan. Mustafa Ali was the Turkish advisor to the Uyghurs in the First East Turkestan Republic. Muhsin Çapanolu was also an advisor, and they both had Pan-Turanist views. Mahmud Nadim Bey, another of their colleagues, was also an advisor to the Uyghur separatists.[50][51]

    The Turkish government under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk reacted angrily at this plot and the Turkish embassy in Japan denounced the Japanese plan to create a puppet state, labeling it a "Muslim Manchukuo".[50] TASS claimed the Uyghur Sabit Damulla invited "Turkish emigrants in India and Japan, with their anti-Kemalist organizations, to organize his military forces."[52]

    Legacy

    The designated terrorist organization Turkistan Islamic Party's magazine "Islamic Turkistan" Arabic: (تركستان الإسلامية) Uyghur: (ئىسلامى تۈركىستان) Issue #12 included a photo of the founders of the First East Turkestan Republic including Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki which was titled "Men who marked history in their blood" (رجال سطروا التاريخ بدمائهم) (1933–1352) featuring the caption "Founders of an independent islamic state in the Hijri year 1352 in East Turkestan" (مؤسسوا دولة إسلامية مستقلة عام 1352هـ في تركستان الشرقية).[53][54]

    Major battles

    Kizil massacre

    المقالة الرئيسية: Kizil massacre

    Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers from Yarkand New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslims and Chinese civilians.

    Battle of Aksu

    A minor battle on May 31, 1933, in which Chinese Muslim troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Isma'il Beg when they rose up in revolt.[55]

    Battle of Sekes Tash

    المقالة الرئيسية: Battle of Sekes Tash

    A minor battle in which Chinese Muslim troops under Gen. Ma Zhancang attacked and defeated Uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 Uighur and Kirghiz were killed.[56]

    Battle of Kashgar

    المقالة الرئيسية: Battle of Kashgar (1933)

    Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers[57] and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under Gen. Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler who held the title Sayyid (descendant of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque.

    Han Chinese troops commanded by Brig. Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the new 36th Division; presumably they had converted to Islam.[58]

    During the battle the Kirghiz prevented the Uighur from looting the city, mainly because they wanted to loot it themselves. They stole the belongings of, and started murdering, the Chinese's concubines and spouses, who were women of Turkic origin and Han and Hui Chinese people themselves.[59]

    First Battle of Urumqi (1933)

    المقالة الرئيسية: First Battle of Urumqi (1933)

    Chinese Muslim and Uyghur forces under Ma Shih-ming and Khoja Niyas attempted to take Urumqi from a force of provincial White Russian troops under Col. Pappengut and the Northeast Salvation Army under Sheng Shicai. They were driven back after fierce fighting. During the battle, Han Chinese Gen. Zhang Peiyuan, of Ili, refused to help Jin Shuren repulse the attack, a sign that relations between the two were becoming strained.

    Battle of Toksun

    المقالة الرئيسية: Battle of Toksun

    The Battle of Toksun occurred in July 1933 after Khoja Niyas Hajji, a Uighur leader, defected with his forces to Gov. Sheng Shicai. He was appointed by Shicai through agreement to be in charge for the whole Southern Xinjiang (Tarim Basin) and also Turpan Basin; satisfied with this agreement, he marched away from Urumchi south across Dawan Ch'eng of Tengritagh Mountains and occupied Toksun in Turpan Basin, but was badly defeated by the Chinese Muslim forces of Gen. Ma Shih-ming, who forced him to retreat to Karashar in eastern Kashgaria, where he had his headquarters during July, August and September 1933, defending mountain passes and roads that led from Turpan Basin to Kashgaria in a fruitless attempt to stop the advancement of Tungan armies to the south.[60]

    Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)

    المقالة الرئيسية: Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)

    Ma Zhongying conducted secret negotiations with Han Chinese Gen. Zhang Peiyuan for a joint attack against Sheng Shicai's provincial Manchurian and White Russian troops in Urumqi. They joined their armies together and began the attack. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. The Kuomintang secretly encouraged Zhang and Ma through Huang Mu-sung to attack Sheng's forces, because of his Soviet connections and to regain the province. Their forces almost defeated Sheng, but then Sheng cabled the Soviet Union for help, which led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang.

    Battle of Kashgar

    المقالة الرئيسية: Battle of Kashgar (1934)

    New 36th Division Gen. Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, and attacked the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another New 36th Division general, Ma Zhancang, who had been trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghizs since May 22, 1933. In January 1934 Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934; the failed attacks resulted in massive casualties to the Uighur forces.[61] From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after the retreat of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and New 36th Division Chief Gen. Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Idgah mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were murdered by troops from the New 36th Division.[62][63][64][65] Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic (TIRET).[66]

    Battle of Yangi Hissar

    المقالة الرئيسية: Battle of Yangi Hissar

    Ma Zhancang led the New 36th Division to attack Uyghur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire force and killing their leader, Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. The siege of Yangi Hissar citadel continued for about a week, during which 500 Uyghur defenders, armed only with rifles, inflicted several hundred casualties on Tungan forces more heavily armed with cannons and machine guns.[67] Quickly depleted of ammunition, Uyghur defenders employed tree trunks, large stones and oil fire bombs to defend the citadel. On April 16, 1934, Tungans managed to breach the walls of the citadel by successful sapping and put all the surviving defenders to the sword. It was reported by Ahmad Kamal in his book "Land Without Laughter" on page 130–131, that Nur Ahmad Jan's head was cut off by Chinese Muslim troops and sent to the local parade ground to be used as a ball in soccer (football) games.[68]

    Battle of Yarkand

    المقالة الرئيسية: Battle of Yarkand

    Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan's Chinese Muslim troops defeated Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by Afghan King Mohammed Zahir Shah and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque.[69]

    Charkhlik Revolt

    المقالة الرئيسية: Charkhlik Revolt

    The New 36th Division under Gen. Ma Hushan crushed a revolt by Uighurs in the Charkliq oasis in 1935.[70] More than 100 Uighurs were executed, and the family of the Uighur leader was taken as hostage.[71][72]

    Misinformation

    Some misinformation had been spread by contemporaneous accounts of the Kumul Rebellion. Swiss writer Ella K. Maillart reported, inaccurately, that the Kizil massacre was an attack of Chinese Muslims and Uyghurs on a group of Kirghiz and Han Chinese.[73] More recent sources prove that it was an attack of Kirghiz and Uyghurs on a group of Han Chinese and Chinese Muslims.[74] She also falsely reported that during the battle of Kashgar the Chinese Muslim and Turkic (Uyghur) troops first took the city from the Han Chinese and Kirghiz and then fought among themselves.[73] In reality, the Kirghiz defected from Ma Shaowu and formed their own army, and the Chinese Muslim force under Ma Zhancang joined Ma Shaowu.

    See also

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