المسألة اليهودية
معاداة السامية |
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التاريخ • خط زمني • مراجع |
المسألة اليهودية Jewish question، ويشار إليها أيضاً بـ المشكلة اليهودية، كان نقاشاً واسعاً في المجتمع الأوروپي بالقرنين 19 والعشرين يتعلق بالوضع والمعاملة المناسبين لليهود. تناول النقاش ، الذي كان مشابهًا لباقي "[السؤال الوطني|الأسئلة الوطنية]]"، الوضع المدني والقانوني والقومي والسياسي لليهود كأقلية داخل المجتمع، خصوصاً في أوروپا خلال القرون الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر والعشرين.
بدأ النقاش داخل مجتمعات أوروبا الغربية والوسطى من قبل السياسيين والكتاب الذين تأثروا بعصر التنوير ومـُثـُل الثورة الفرنسية. تضمنت قضايا النقاش المعوقات اليهودية (مثل الحصص المخصصة لليهود والفصل)، التماهي اليهودي والتحرر اليهودي والتنوير اليهودي.
استـُخدِم هذا التعبير من قبل الحركات المعادية للسامية منذ ثمانينيات القرن التاسع عشر فصاعداً، وبلغت ذروتها في العبارة النازية "الحل النهائي للمسألة اليهودية". وبالمثل، استـُخدِم التعبير من قبل مؤيدي ومعارضي إقامة وطن يهودي ذاتي أو دولة يهودية ذات سيادة.
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تاريخ "المسألة اليهودية"
استخدم مصطلح "المسألة اليهودية" لأول مرة في بريطانيا العظمى في حوالي عام 1750، واستخدم خلال المناقشات المعلقة بقانون تجنيس اليهود 1753.[1] وفقًا لأستاذة دراسات الهولوكوستلوسي داودڤيتش فأن مصطلح "المسألة اليهودية" في أوروبا الشرقية كان تعبيرًا محايدًا عن الموقف السلبي تجاه تفرد اليهود الظاهر والثابت أمام خلفية القوميات السياسية الصاعدة و الدول القومية الجديدة. وتقول داودڤيتش في كتاباتها "أن تاريخ تحرر اليهود ومعادة السامية الأوروبية زاخر بحلول مقدمة للمسألة اليهودية.'"[2]
أثير المصطلح مرة أخرى في فرنسا (la question juive) بعد الثورة عام 1789. ونقش بعد ذلك في ألمانيا عام 1843 في أطروحة برونو باور Die Judenfrage، وقال من خلالها أن اليهود باستطاعتخم التحرر سياسيًا فقط إذا تخلوا عن وعيهم الديني، وحسب رؤيته فأن التحرر السياسي يتطلب دولة علمانية. وفي عام 1898، دعمت أطروحة تيودور هرتزل الدولة اليهودية الصهيونية باعتبارها "حل حديث للمسألة اليهودية" وتتحقق من خلا إقامة دولة يهودية مستقلة، وحبذا لو كانت فلسطين.[3]
وحسب أوتو دوڤ كولكا الاستاذ في الجامعة العبرية، فأن المصطح قد انتشر في القرن التاسع عشر عندما استخدم أثناء نقاشات التحرر اليهودي في ألمانيا [4] خلال القرن ال19 كتبت مئات من المنشورات والمقالات الصحفية والكتب عن هذه المسألة وقدم العديد منها حلول من ضمنها كإعادة توطين السكان اليهود أو ترحيلهم أو استيعابهم، وعلى غرار ذلك كتبت مئات الأعمال التي تعارض تلك الحلول متقدم حلول بديلة مثل إعادة دمجهم وتعليمهم، لكن هذا النقاش تحديد إذا ما كانت مشكلة مسألة اليهود تتعلق بشكل كبير بالمشكلات التي يطرحها معارضي اليهود الألمان أم العكس: أي المشكلة التي يطرحها وجود اليهود بالنسبة أمام معرضيهم.
From around 1860, the term was used with an increasingly antisemitic tendency: Jews were described under this term as a stumbling block to the identity and cohesion of the German nation and as enemies within the Germans' own country. Antisemites such as Wilhelm Marr, Karl Eugen Dühring, Theodor Fritsch, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Paul de Lagarde and others declared it a racial problem insoluble through integration. They stressed this in order to strengthen their demands to "de-jewify" the press, education, culture, state and economy. They also proposed to condemn inter-marriage between Jews and non-Jews. They used this term to oust the Jews from their supposedly socially dominant positions.
The most infamous use of this expression was by the Nazis in the early- and mid- twentieth century. They implemented what they called their "Final Solution to the Jewish question" through the Holocaust during World War II, when they attempted to exterminate Jews in Europe.[5][6]
برونو باور – المسألة اليهودية
In his book The Jewish Question (1843), Bauer argued that Jews could only achieve political emancipation if they relinquish their particular religious consciousness. He believed that political emancipation requires a secular state, and such a state did not leave any "space" for social identities such as religion. According to Bauer, such religious demands are incompatible with the idea of the "Rights of Man." True political emancipation, for Bauer, requires the abolition of religion.[بحاجة لمصدر]
كارل ماركس – في المسألة اليهودية
Karl Marx replied to Bauer in his 1844 essay On the Jewish Question. Marx repudiated Bauer's view that the nature of the Jewish religion prevented assimilation by Jews. Instead, Marx attacks Bauer's very formulation of the question from "can the jews become politically emancipated?" as fundamentally masking the nature of political emancipation itself.[7]
Marx uses Bauer's essay as an occasion for his own analysis of liberal rights. Marx argues that Bauer is mistaken in his assumption that in a "secular state", religion will no longer play a prominent role in social life. As an example, he refers to the pervasiveness of religion in the United States, which, unlike Prussia, had no state religion. In Marx's analysis, the "secular state" is not opposed to religion, but rather assumes it. The removal of religious or property qualifications for citizenship does not mean the abolition of religion or property, but rather naturalizes both and introduces a way of regarding individuals in abstraction from them.[8] On this note Marx moves beyond the question of religious freedom to his real concern with Bauer's analysis of "political emancipation." Marx concludes that while individuals can be 'politically' free in a secular state, they are still bound to material constraints on freedom by economic inequality, an assumption that would later form the basis of his critiques of capitalism.
بعد ماركس
Werner Sombart praised Jews for their capitalism and presented the seventeenth–eighteenth century court Jews as integrated and a model for integration.[9] By the turn of the twentieth century, the debate was still widely discussed. The Dreyfus Affair in France, believed to be evidence of anti-semitism, increased the prominence of this issue. Within the religious and political elite, some continued to favor assimilation and political engagement in Europe[بحاجة لمصدر] while others, such as Theodore Herzl, proposed the advancement of a separate Jewish state and the Zionist cause.[10] Between 1880 and 1920, millions of Jews created their own solution for the pogroms of eastern Europe by emigration to other places, primarily the United States and western Europe.
الحل النهائي
In Nazi Germany, the term Jewish Question (in ألمانية: Judenfrage) referred to the belief that the existence of Jews in Germany posed a problem for the state. In 1933 two Nazi theorists, Johann von Leers and Achim Gercke, both proposed the idea that the Jewish Question could be solved by resettling Jews in Madagascar or resettling them somewhere else in Africa or South America. They also discussed the pros and cons of supporting the German Zionists. Von Leers asserted that establishing a Jewish homeland in British Palestine would create humanitarian and political problems for the region.[11]
Upon achieving power in 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi state began to implement increasingly severe measures that were aimed at segregating and ultimately removing the Jewish people from Germany and (eventually) all of Europe.[12] The next stage was the persecution of the Jews and the stripping of their citizenship through the Nuremberg Laws.[13][14] Later, during World War II, it became state-sponsored internment in concentration camps.[15] Finally the government implemented the systematic extermination of the Jewish people (The Holocaust),[16] which took place as the so-called Final Solution to the Jewish Question.[5][17][18]
Nazi propaganda was produced in order to manipulate the public, the most notable examples of which were based on the writings of people such as Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz and Erwin Baur in Foundations of Human Heredity Teaching and Racial Hygiene. The work Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens (Allowing the Destruction of Life Unworthy of Living) by Karl Binding and Alfred Hoche and the pseudo-scholarship that was promoted by Gerhard Kittel also played a role. In occupied France, the collaborationist regime established its own Institute for studying the Jewish Questions.
الاستخدام الحالي
A dominant anti-Semitic conspiracy theory is the belief that Jewish people have undue influence over the media, banking and politics. Based on this conspiracy theory, certain groups and activists discuss the "Jewish Question" and offer different proposals to address it. In the early 21st century, white nationalists, alt-righters, and neo-Nazis have used the initialism JQ in order to refer to the Jewish question.[19][20]
انظر أيضاً
- المسألة الأرمنية
- المسألة الألمانية
- المسألة الأرمنية
- المسألة الزنجية
- المسألة الپولندية
- مسألة العرق
- أولريخ فلايشهاور
- اليهودي المفيد
- الإشاعات المعادية للسامية
- المسألة الشرقية
- المسألة المصرية
الهامش
ملاحظات
- ^ Kulka, Otto D. (1994). "Introduction". In Auerbach, Rena R. (ed.). The 'Jewish Question' in German Speaking Countries, 1848–1914, A Bibliography. New York: Garland. ISBN 9780815308126. Freely available at "The following essay, by Prof. Otto Dov Kulka, is based on the introduction to Rena R. Auerbach, ed.: "The 'Jewish Question'". The Felix Posen Bibliographic Project on Antisemitism, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 25 November 2005.
- ^ Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945 (New York, 1975), pp. xxi–xxiii.
- ^ Herzl, Theodor (1988) [1896]. "Biography, by Alex Bein". Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state]. transl. Sylvie d'Avigdor (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
- ^ As of 2008 Otto Dov Kulka's works are out of print, but the following may be useful and is available on microfilm: Reminiscences of Otto Dov Kulka (Glen Rock, New Jersey: Microfilming Corp. of America, 1975), ISBN 0884555984, 978-0884555988, OCLC 5326379.
- ^ أ ب Stig Hornshoj-Moller (24 October 1998). "Hitler's speech to the Reichstag of January 30, 1939". The Holocaust History Project. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Furet, François. Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews. Schocken Books (1989), p. 182; ISBN 0-8052-4051-9
- ^ Karl Marx (February 1844). "On the Jewish Question". Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Marx 1844:
[T]he political annulment of private property not only fails to abolish private property but even presupposes it. The state abolishes, in its own way, distinctions of birth, social rank, education, occupation, when it declares that birth, social rank, education, occupation, are non-political distinctions, when it proclaims, without regard to these distinctions, that every member of the nation is an equal participant in national sovereignty, when it treats all elements of the real life of the nation from the standpoint of the state. Nevertheless, the state allows private property, education, occupation, to act in their way – i.e., as private property, as education, as occupation, and to exert the influence of their special nature. Far from abolishing these real distinctions, the state only exists on the presupposition of their existence; it feels itself to be a political state and asserts its universality only in opposition to these elements of its being.
- ^ Werner Sombart (1911) [translated in 2001]. The Jews and Modern Capitalism (PDF). Batoche Books. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Theodor Herzl (1896). Der Judenstaat: Versuch einer modernen Lösung der Judenfrage (in الألمانية). M. Breitenstein's Verlags-Buchhandlung. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Dr. Achim Gercke. "Solving the Jewish Question".
- ^ David M. Crowe. The Holocaust: Roots, History, and Aftermath. Westview Press, 2008.
- ^ Adolf Hitler; Wilhelm Frick; Franz Gürtner; Rudolf Hess (15 September 1935). "Nuremberg Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor". Archived from the original on 19 March 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Adolf Hitler; Wilhelm Frick (15 September 1935). "Reich Citizenship Law". Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Doris Bergen (2004–2005). "Germany and the Camp System". Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State. Community Television of Southern California. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ Niewyk, Donald L. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." Also see "The Holocaust," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007: "the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women and children, and millions of others, by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans called this "the final solution to the Jewish question."
- ^ Gord McFee (2 January 1999). "When did Hitler decide on the Final Solution?". The Holocaust History Project. Archived from the original on 2 June 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
- ^ For some extra depth, the interested reader might read Wannsee Conference as well.
- ^ Kestenbaum, Sam. "White Nationalists Create New Shorthand for the 'Jewish Question'". The Forward. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
- ^ "JQ stands for the 'Jewish Question,' an anti-Semitic conspiracy theory that Jewish people have undue influence over the media, banking and politics that must somehow be addressed" (Christopher Mathias, Jenna Amatulli, Rebecca Klein, 2018, The HuffPost, 3 March 2018, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/florida-public-school-teacher-white-nationalist-podcast_us_5a99ae32e4b089ec353a1fba)
للاستزادة
- Ford, Henry (1920) "The International Jew – the World's Foremost Problem", articles from the Dearborn Independent
- Roudinesco, Elisabeth (2013) Returning to the Jewish Question, London, Polity Press, p. 280
- Wolf, Lucien (1919) "Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question", Jewish Historical Society of England
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