اللغات الأصلية بالأمريكتين

كتابة مايا يوكاتك في مجموعة مخطوطات درسدن، ح. القرن 11–12، تشيتشن إيتسا

اللغات الأصلية بالأمريكتين: دخل الإنسان الأول العالم الجديد عن طريق مضيق بِرِنگ Behring الذي وصله بالقارة الآسيوية، وحمل معه لغاته التي انتشرت ببطء من أقصى الشمال حتى أقصى الجنوب. ولا يتوافر كثير من المعلومات حول أصول اللغات الهندية - الأمريكية American- Indian، والتسمية مغلوطة مثلما هي تسمية سكان البلاد الأصليين بالهنود، ولكن لابد أنها كانت من أوائل اللغات التي تداولها الناس في سهوب شمالي القارة الآسيوية؛ إذ إن هناك كثيراً من أوجه الشبه في الأصوات والنبر بين اللغات التي يتكلمها السكان الأصليون الحاليون في شمالي سيبيريا وروسيا وشبه الجزيرة الاسكندناڤية وبين لغات الإنويت Inuit ـ أو الإسكيمو Eskimo ـ في أقصى شمال شرقي القارة الأمريكية الشمالية والألوت Aleut في أقصى شمال غربيها ولغات كثير من القبائل الهندية الأمريكية، وثمة تشابه أيضاً في أسلوب المعيشة والتقاليد من غناء «همهمة» وطقوس دينية. وقد انقرض كثير من هذه اللغات، ولم يبق منها سوى النزر اليسير نتيجة الإبادة الجماعية التي تعرض لها عشرات الملايين من سكان العالم الجديد الأصليين على يد المستوطنين البيض وبعد فرض لغات الغزاة ودياناتهم على من تبقى منهم.

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خلفية

Pre-contact distribution of North American language families شمال المكسيك

تتداخل لغات العالم الجديد الأصلية مع تداخل القارات الأمريكية الثلاث بعضها بالآخر. ففي أمريكا الشمالية تسود أسر اللغات الإسكيمو- الألوت، والألگونكوينية Algonquin التي منها لغات قبائل الآراباهو Arapaho وبلاكفوت Blackfoot وشايين Cheyenne، والهوكا- السو Hoka-Sioux التي منها لغات قبائل كرو Crow وسو Sioux وبوني Pawnee وإروكوا (شيروكي) Iroquois (Cherokee) ومسكوگي (كريك) Muskogee (Creek). وتسود في غربي القارة أسر لغات نادييه Nadene وآتاباسكا (آباتشي) Athabaska (Apache)، والبنوتية أو البنوطية (شِنوك) Penutian (Chinook). وتسود البنوتية في أمريكا الوسطى أيضاً، إضافة إلى أسر اللغات الأُتو أزتيكية Uto-Aztec التي منها الأزتيكية البائدة والشوشونية (الكومانشية) Shoshonean (Comanche)، وماكرو أوتومانگوية Macro-Otomanguean، وماكرو شِبشانية Macro-Chibchan المنتشرة حتى القارة الأمريكية الجنوبية حيث تسود أسر اللغات الأندية - الاستوائية Andean-Equatorial، والجيبانو- كاريبية Ge-Pano-Carib التي تشمل البحر الكاريبي أيضاً، إضافة إلى لغات الأراوكان Arawakan أو Araucan المنتشرة في المنطقة الجغرافية ذاتها.

وقد أدى غياب أي تراث أدبي ولغوي مدون - إضافة إلى الأسباب التي سبق ذكرها - إلى اندثار معظم اللغات الهندية - الأمريكية.


  1. Adai †
  2. Algic (30)
  3. Alsean (2) †
  4. Atakapa †
  5. Beothuk †
  6. Caddoan (5)
  7. Cayuse †
  8. Chimakuan (2)
  9. Chimariko †
  10. Chinookan (3)
  11. Chitimacha †
  12. Chumashan (6) †
  13. Coahuilteco †
  14. Comecrudan (United States & Mexico) (3) †
  15. Coosan (2) †
  16. Cotoname †
  17. Eskimo–Aleut (7)
  18. Esselen †
  19. Haida
  20. Iroquoian (11)
  21. Kalapuyan (3) †
  22. Karankawa †
  23. Karuk
  24. Keresan (2)
  25. Kutenai
  26. Maiduan (4)
  27. Muskogean (9)
  28. Na–Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (39)
  29. Natchez †
  30. Palaihnihan (2)
  31. Plateau Penutian (4) (also known as Shahapwailutan)
  32. Pomoan (7)
  33. Salinan †
  34. Salishan (23)
  35. Shastan (4) †
  36. Siouan–Catawban (19)
  37. Siuslaw †
  38. Solano †
  39. Takelma †
  40. Tanoan (7)
  41. Timucua †
  42. Tonkawa †
  43. Tsimshianic (2)
  44. Tunica †
  45. Utian (15) (also known as Miwok–Costanoan)
  46. Uto-Aztecan (33)
  47. Wakashan (7)
  48. Wappo †
  49. Washo
  50. Wintuan (4)
  51. Yana †
  52. Yokutsan (3)
  53. Yuchi
  54. Yuki †
  55. Yuman (11)
  56. Zuni


أمريكا الوسطى والمكسيك

اللغات الأصلية في المكسيك التي يتكلم بها أكثر من 100,000 شخص
  1. Alagüilac (گواتيمالا) †
  2. Algic (الولايات المتحدة وكندا والمكسيك) (29)
  3. Chibchan (أمريكا الوسطى و أمريكا الجنوبية) (22)
  4. Coahuilteco †
  5. Comecrudan (تكساس والمكسيك) (3) †
  6. Cotoname †
  7. Cuitlatec (المكسيك: Guerrero) †
  8. Guaicurian (8)
  9. Guaymí (Ngäbere) (كوستاريكا و پنما)
  10. Huave
  11. Jicaquean
  12. Lencan
  13. Maratino (شمال شرق المكسيك)
  14. مايا (31)
  15. Misumalpan
  16. Mixe–Zoquean (19)
  17. Na–Dené (الولايات المتحدة وكندا والمكسيك) (40)
  18. Naolan (المكسيك: Tamaulipas)
  19. Oto-Manguean (27)
  20. P'urhépecha
  21. Quinigua (شمال شرق المكسيك)
  22. Seri
  23. Solano †
  24. Tequistlatecan (3)
  25. Totonacan (2)
  26. Uto-Aztecan (الولايات المتحدة والمكسيك) (33)
  27. Xincan
  28. يومان (الولايات المتحدة والمكسيك) (11)

أمريكا الجنوبية

Some of the greater families of South America: dark spots are language isolates or quasi-isolate, grey spots unclassified languages or languages with doubtful classification.
A Urarina shaman, 1988.
  1. Aguano †
  2. Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Aikanã, Tubarão)
  3. Andaquí (also known as Andaqui, Andakí) †
  4. Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (also known as Andoke)
  5. Andoquero †
  6. Arawakan (أمريكا الجنوبية والكاريبي) (64) (also known as Maipurean)
  7. Arauan (9)
  8. Arutani
  9. Aymaran (3)
  10. Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (also known as Baenán, Baenã) †
  11. Barbacoan (8)
  12. Betoi (Colombia) (also known as Betoy, Jirara) †
  13. Bororoan
  14. Borowa (also known as Macu, Máku)
  15. Botocudoan (3) (also known as Aimoré)
  16. Cahuapanan (2) (also known as Jebero, Kawapánan)
  17. Camsá (Colombia) (also known as Sibundoy, Coche)
  18. Candoshi (also known as Maina, Kandoshi)
  19. Canichana (Bolivia) (also known as Canesi, Kanichana)
  20. Carabayo
  21. Cariban (29) (also known as Caribe, Carib)
  22. Catacaoan (also known as Katakáoan) †
  23. Cayubaba (Bolivia)
  24. Chapacuran (9) (also known as Chapacura-Wanham, Txapakúran)
  25. Charruan (also known as Charrúan) †
  26. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  27. Chimuan (3) †
  28. Chipaya–Uru (also known as Uru–Chipaya)
  29. Chiquitano
  30. Choco (10) (also known as Chocoan)
  31. Chon (2) (also known as Patagonian)
  32. Chono †
  33. Ciboney (3?) † (Cuba, Hispaniola)
  34. Coeruna (Brazil) †
  35. Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
  36. *Colima † (Colombia)
  37. Cueva
  38. Culle (Peru) (also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi)
  39. Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) †
  40. Esmeraldeño (also known as Esmeralda, Takame) †
  41. Fulnió
  42. Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) †
  43. Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) †
  44. Guaicuruan (7) (also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)
  45. Guajiboan (4) (also known as Wahívoan) †
  46. Guamo (Venezuela) (also known as Wamo) †
  47. Guató
  48. Harakmbut (2) (also known as Tuyoneri)
  49. Hibito–Cholon †
  50. Himarimã
  51. Hodï (Venezuela) (also known as Jotí, Hoti, Waruwaru)
  52. Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  53. Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)
  54. Huarpe (also known as Warpe) †
  55. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  56. Itonama (Bolivia) (also known as Saramo, Machoto)
  57. Jirajaran (3) (also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) †
  58. Jabutian
  59. Je (13) (also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)
  60. Jeikó †
  61. Jivaroan (2) (also known as Hívaro)
  62. Kaimbe
  63. Kaliana (also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)
  64. Kamakanan †
  65. Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná)
  66. Karajá
  67. Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) †
  68. Katembrí †
  69. Katukinan (3) (also known as Catuquinan)
  70. Kawésqar (Chile) (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)
  71. Kwaza (Koayá) (Brazil: Rondônia)
  72. Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) †
  73. Leco (Lapalapa, Leko)
  74. Lule (Argentina) (also known as Tonocoté)
  75. Malibú (also known as Malibu)
  76. Mapudungu (Chile, Argentina) (also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche)
  77. Mascoyan (5) (also known as Maskóian, Mascoian)
  78. Matacoan (4) (also known as Mataguayan)
  79. Matanawí †
  80. Maxakalían (3) (also known as Mashakalían)
  81. Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) †
  82. Mosetenan (also known as Mosetén)
  83. Movima (Bolivia)
  84. Munichi (Peru) (also known as Muniche)
  85. Muran (4)
  86. Mutú (also known as Loco)
  87. *Muzo (Colombia) †
  88. Nadahup (5)
  89. Nambiquaran (5)
  90. Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  91. Nonuya (Peru, Colombia)
  92. Ofayé
  93. Old Catío–Nutabe (Colombia) †
  94. Omurano (Peru) (also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) †
  95. Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) †
  96. Otomakoan (2) †
  97. Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe)
  98. Pakarara †
  99. Palta
  100. *Panche †
  101. Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  102. Pano–Tacanan (33)
  103. *Pantagora †
  104. Panzaleo (Ecuador) (also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo)
  105. Patagon † (Peru)
  106. Peba–Yaguan (2) (also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban) †
  107. Pijao
  108. Puelche (Chile) (also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) †
  109. Puinave (8) (also known as Makú)
  110. Puquina (Bolivia) †
  111. Purian (2) †
  112. Quechuan (46)
  113. Rikbaktsá
  114. Saliban (2) (also known as Sálivan)
  115. Sechura (Atalan, Sec) †
  116. Tabancale † (Peru)
  117. Tairona (Colombia) †
  118. Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) †
  119. Taruma †
  120. Taushiro (Peru) (also known as Pinchi, Pinche)
  121. Tequiraca (Peru) (also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri) †
  122. Teushen † (Patagonia, Argentina)
  123. Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)
  124. Timotean (2) †
  125. Tiniguan (2) (also known as Tiníwan, pamigua) †
  126. Tucanoan (15)
  127. Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
  128. Tupian (70, including Guaraní)
  129. Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) †
  130. Urarina (also known as Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)
  131. Vilela
  132. Wakona †
  133. Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (also known as Guarao)
  134. Witotoan (6) (also known as Huitotoan, Bora–Witótoan)
  135. Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (also known as Shokó) †
  136. Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) †
  137. Yaghan (Chile) (also known as Yámana)
  138. Yaruro (also known as Jaruro)
  139. Yanomaman (4)
  140. Yuracare (Bolivia)
  141. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (also known as Carabayo, Jurí) †
  142. Yurumanguí (Colombia) (also known as Yurimangui, Yurimangi) †
  143. Zamucoan (2)
  144. Zaparoan (5) (also known as Záparo)

* There is little to say about these almost unattested languages. See Pijao.


  1. Angonkian–Gulf   (= Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)
  2. Algonquian–Wakashan   (also known as Almosan)
  3. Almosan–Keresiouan   (= Almosan + Keresiouan)
  4. Amerind   (= all languages excepting Eskimo–Aleut & Na–Dené)
  5. (macro-)Arawakan
  6. Arutani–Sape (Ahuaque–Kalianan)
  7. Aztec–Tanoan   (= Uto-Aztecan + Tanoan)
  8. Chibchan stock
  9. Chibchan–Paezan
  10. Chikitano–Boróroan
  11. Chimu–Chipaya
  12. Coahuiltecan   (= Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)
  13. Cunza–Kapixanan
  14. Dené–Yeniseian
  15. Dené–Caucasian
  16. Esmerelda–Yaruroan
  17. Ge–Pano–Carib
  18. Guamo–Chapacuran
  19. Gulf   (= Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)
  20. Hokan   (= Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)
  21. Hokan–Siouan   (= Hokan + Keresiouan + Subtiaba–Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Tunican + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)
  22. Je–Tupi–Carib
  23. Jivaroan–Cahuapanan
  24. Kalianan
  25. Kandoshi–Omurano–Taushiro
  26. (Macro-)Katembri–Taruma
  27. Kaweskar language area
  28. Keresiouan   (= Macro-Siouan + Keresan + Yuchi)
  29. Lule–Vilelan
  30. Macro-Andean
  31. Macro-Carib
  32. Macro-Chibchan
  33. Macro-Gê   (also known as Macro-Jê)
  34. Macro-Jibaro
  35. Macro-Kulyi–Cholónan
  36. Macro-Lekoan
  37. Macro-Mayan
  38. Macro-Otomákoan
  39. Macro-Paesan
  40. Macro-Panoan
  41. Macro-Puinavean
  42. Macro-Siouan   (= Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)
  43. Macro-Tucanoan
  44. Macro-Tupí–Karibe
  45. Macro-Waikurúan
  46. Macro-Warpean   (= Muran + Matanawi + Huarpe)
  47. Mataco–Guaicuru
  48. Mosan   (= Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
  49. Mosetén–Chonan
  50. Mura–Matanawian
  51. Sapir's Na–Dené including Haida   (= Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)
  52. Nostratic–Amerind
  53. Paezan (= Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo)
  54. Paezan–Barbacoan
  55. Penutian   (= many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)
    1. California Penutian   (= Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)
    2. Oregon Penutian   (= Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)
    3. Mexican Penutian   (= Mixe–Zoque + Huave)
  56. Puinave–Maku
  57. Quechumaran
  58. Saparo–Yawan   (also known as Zaparo–Yaguan)
  59. Sechura–Catacao (also known as Sechura–Tallan)
  60. Takelman   (= Takelma + Kalapuyan)
  61. Tequiraca–Canichana
  62. Ticuna–Yuri (Yuri–Ticunan)
  63. Totozoque   (= Totonacan + Mixe–Zoque)
  64. Tunican   (= Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)
  65. Yok-Utian
  66. Yuki–Wappo
Language Family Probability Confidence
Macro-Siouan[1] −20% 75%
Aztec–Tanoan 0% 50%
Quechumaran +50% 50%
Eskimo–Aleut,
Chukotan[2] 		−25% 20%
Na–Dene 0% 25%
Tlingit–Eyak–Athabaskan +75% 40%
Mosan −60% 65%
Wakashan and Chimakuan 0% 25%
Almosan (and beyond) −75% 50%
Hokan–Subtiaba −90% 75%
Coahuiltecan −85% 80%
Guaicurian–Hokan 0% 10%
Quechua as Hokan −85% 80%
Tunican 0% 20%
Natchez–Muskogean +40% 20%
Atakapa–Chitimacha −50% 60%
Gulf −25% 40%
Algonkian–Gulf −50% 50%
Mexican Penutian −40% 60%
Sahaptian–Klamath–(Molala) +75% 50%
Sahaptian–Klamath–Tsimshian +10% 10%
Takelman[3] +80% 60%
Zuni–Penutian −80% 50%
Yukian–Siouan −60% 75%
Yukian–Gulf −85% 70%
Keresan and Zuni −40% 40%
Keresan and Uto-Aztecan 0% 60%
Macro-Mayan[4] +30% 25%
Maya–Chipaya −80% 95%
Maya–Chipaya–Yunga −90% 95%
Otomanguean–Huave +25% 25%
Tlapanec–Subtiaba as Otomanguean +95% 90%
Jicaque–Subtiaba −60% 80%
Jicaque–Tequistlatecan +65% 50%
Jicaque–Hokan −30% 25%
Xinca–Lenca 0% 50%
Tarascan–Quechua −90% 80%
Misumalpan–Chibchan +20% 50%
Nostratic–Amerind −90% 75%


Linguistic Area (Sprachbund) Included families, branches, and languages
Northern Northwest Coast[5] Aleut, Haida, Eyak, Tlingit
Northwest Coast[6] Eyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan,
Takelma, Lower Chinook
Plateau[7] Sahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala, Klamath, Kutenai, Interior Salishan
Northern California Algic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Naiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi,
Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana, (Washo)
Clear Lake Lake Miwok, Patwin, East and Southeastern Pomo, Wappo
South Coast Range Chumash, Esselen, Salinan
Southern California-Western Arizona Yuman, Cupan (Uto-Aztecan), less extensively Takic (Uto-Aztecan)
Great Basin Numic (Uto-Aztecan), Washo
Pueblo Keresan, Tanoan, Zuni, Hopi, some Apachean branches
Plains Athabaskan, Algonquian, Siouan, Tanoan, Uto-Aztecan, Tonkawa
Northeast Winnebago (Siouan), Northern Iroquian, Eastern Algonquian
Southeast ("Gulf") Muskogean family, Chitimacha, Atapaka, Tunica, Natchez, Yuchi, Ofo (Siouan), Biloxi (Siouan) –
sometimes also Tutelo, Catawban, Quapaw, Dhegiha (all Siouan); Tuscarora, Cherokee, Shawnee
Mesoamerican Aztecan (Nahua branch of Uto-Aztecan), Mixe–Zoquean, Mayan, Xincan, Otomanguean
(except Chichimeco–Jonaz and some Pame varieties, Totonacan), Tarascan, Cuitlatec, Tequistlatecan, Huave
Mayan[8] Mayan, Xincan, Lencan, Jicaquean
Colombian–Central American[9] Chibchan, Misumalpan, Mangue, Subtiaba; sometimes Lencan, Jicaquean, Chochoan, Betoi
Venezuelan–Antillean[10] Arawakan, Cariban, Guamo, Otomaco, Yaruro, Warao
Andean[11] Quechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, Chipaya
Ecuadorian–Colombian
(subarea of Andean) 		Páez, Guambiano (Paezan), Cuaiquer, Cayapa, Colorado (Barbacoan), Camsá, Cofán, Esmeralda, Ecuadorian Quechua
Orinoco–Amazon Yanomaman, Piaroa (Sálivan), Arawakan/Maipurean, Cariban, Jotí, Uruak/Ahuaqué, Sapé (Kaliana), Makú
Amazon Arawakan/Maipurean, Arauan/Arawan, Cariban, Chapacuran, Ge/Je, Panoan, Puinavean, Tacanan, Tucanoan, Tupian
Southern Cone Mapudungu (Araucanian), Guaycuruan, Chon



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انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

  1. ^ Siouan–Iroquoian–Caddoan–[Yuchi]
  2. ^ American-Arctic–Paleosiberian Phylum, Luoravetlan – and beyond
  3. ^ Alternatively Takelma–Kalapuyan
  4. ^ Macro-Mayan includes Mayan, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoquean, and sometimes Huave.
  5. ^ May be a subarea of the Northern Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund is contains languages that have strict head-final syntax.
  6. ^ Characterized by elaborate consonant systems
  7. ^ Characterized by glottal stops
  8. ^ Often included in the Mesoamerican sprachbund
  9. ^ Characterized by SOV word order and postpositions
  10. ^ Characterized by VO word order (instead of SOV)
  11. ^ Characterized by SOV word order and elaborate suffixing

قائمة المراجع

  • Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3–29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-009846-6.
  • Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).

امريكا الشمالية

  • Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1-7.
  • Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
  • Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713–726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton.
  • Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
  • Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
  • Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the southeast. Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1-60.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1990). Studies of North American Indian Languages. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19(1): 309-330.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1–142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska).
  • Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen.
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum.
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749–795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976).
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
  • Sletcher, Michael, ‘North American Indians’, in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005).
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
  • Vaas, Rüdiger: ‘Die Sprachen der Ureinwohner’. In: Stoll, Günter, Vaas, Rüdiger: Spurensuche im Indianerland. Hirzel. Stuttgart 2001, chapter 7.
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121-150.
  • Zededa, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered languages (pp. 135–155). Oxford: Berg.

أمريكا الجنوبية

  • Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press.
  • Fabre, Alain. (1998). "Manual de las lenguas indígenas sudamericanas, I-II". München: Lincom Europa.
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70414-3.
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
  • Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
  • Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
  • Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
  • Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
  • Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
  • Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138–141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd.
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-00155-7.

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