ثقافة كلوڤيس

"A Clovis blade with medium to large lanceolate spear-knife points. Side is parallel to convex and exhibit careful pressure flaking along the blade edge. The broadest area is near the midsection or toward the base. The Base is distinctly concave with a characteristic flute or channel flake removed from one or, more commonly, both surfaces of the blade. The lower edges of the blade and base is ground to dull edges for hafting. Clovis points also tend to be thicker than the typically thin later stage Folsom points. Length: 4–20 cm/1.5–8 in. Width: 2.5–5 cm/1–2
A Clovis projectile point created using bifacial percussion flaking (that is, each face is flaked on both edges alternately with a percussor)

ثقافة كلوڤيس Clovis culture، هي ثقافة پاليو-هندية ما قبل التاريخ، سميت على اسم أدوات حجرية متميزة عثر عليها في الموقع بالقرب من كلوڤيس، نيو مكسيكو، في العشرينيات والثلاثينيات. ظهرت ثقافة كلوڤيس حوالي 11,050 RCYBP (سنة كربون مشع قبل الحاضر[1])، في نهاية "نصال كلوڤيس" وأدوات متميزة من العظم والعاج. تشير التقارير الأثرية الأكثر دقة في الوقت الحالي أن عصر الكربون المشع هذا مكافئ لحوالي 13.200 إلى 12.00 سنة مضت. يعتبر شعب الكلوڤيس أسلاف معظم الثقافات الأصلية في أمريكا الشمالية والجنوبية.


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الوصف

نقاط كلوڤيس من موقع روملس-ماسكه كاتشه، آيوا.

The Clovis peoples are thought to have been highly mobile groups of hunter-gatherers.[2] It is generally agreed that these groups were reliant on hunting big game (megafauna),[3] having a particularly strong association with mammoths, and to a lesser extent with mastodon, bison, camel, and horse,[4] but they also consumed smaller animals and plants.[3] The Clovis hunters may have contributed to the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions in North America, though this idea has been subject to controversy.[4] Only one human burial has been directly associated with tools from the Clovis culture: Anzick-1, a young boy found buried in Montana,[5][6][7] who has a close genetic relation to some modern Native American populations, primarily in Central and South America.[7][8][9]

The Clovis culture represents the earliest widely recognised archaeological culture in North America[10] (though in western North America, it appears to have been contemporaneous with the Western Stemmed Tradition). While historically, many scholars held to a "Clovis first" model, where Clovis represented the earliest inhabitants in the Americas, today this is largely rejected, with several generally accepted sites across the Americas like Monte Verde II being dated to at least a thousand years earlier than the oldest Clovis sites.[11]

The end of the Clovis culture may have been driven by the decline of the megafauna that the Clovis hunted as well as decreasing mobility, resulting in local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across North America.[12] Beginning around 12,750–12,600 years BP, the Clovis culture was succeeded by more regional cultures,[13] including the Folsom tradition in central North America,[13] the Cumberland point in mid/southern North America,[14] the Suwannee and Simpson points in the southeast,[15] and Gainey points in the Northeast–Great Lakes region.[16] The Clovis and Folsom traditions may have overlapped, perhaps for around 80–400 years.[17] The end of the Clovis culture is generally thought be the result of normal cultural change over time.[12][17]

In South America, the widespread similar Fishtail or Fell point style was contemporaneous to the usage of Clovis points in North America[18][19] and possibly developed from Clovis points.[20]


اختفاء كلوڤيس

للمزيد من المعلومات: Younger Dryas


الاكتشاف

المقالة الرئيسية: كهف برنت and موقع دنت

On August 29, 1927, the first evidence of Pleistocene humans seen by multiple archaeologists in the Americas was discovered near Folsom, New Mexico. At this site, they found the first in situ Folsom point with the bones of the extinct bison species Bison antiquus. This confirmation of a human presence in the Americas during the Pleistocene inspired many people to start looking for evidence of early humans.[21]

In 1929, 19-year-old Ridgely Whiteman, who had been closely following the excavations in nearby Folsom in the newspapers, discovered the Clovis site near the Blackwater Draw in eastern New Mexico. Despite several earlier Paleoindian discoveries, the best documented evidence of the Clovis complex was collected and excavated between 1932 and 1937 near Clovis, New Mexico, by a crew under the direction of Edgar Billings Howard until 1935 and later by John L. Cotter from the Academy of Natural Sciences at the University of Pennsylvania. Howard's crew left their excavation in Burnet Cave, the first professionally excavated Clovis site, in August 1932, and visited Whiteman and his Blackwater Draw site. By November, Howard was back at Blackwater Draw to investigate additional finds from a construction project.[22]

The American Journal of Archaeology, in its January–March 1932 edition, mentions Howard's work in Burnet Cave, including the discovery of extinct fauna and a "Folsom type" point 4 ft below a Basketmaker burial. Reference is made to a slightly earlier article on Burnet Cave in The University Museum Bulletin from November 1931.[23]

The Dent site in Colorado was the first known association of Clovis points with mammoth bones, as noted by Hannah Marie Wormington in her book Ancient Man in North America (4th ed. 1957).[24] Gary Haynes, in his book The Early Settlement of North America, suggested the type of fluted point thereafter associated with megafauna (especially mammoths) at over a dozen other archaeological sites in North America would have been more appropriately named "Dent" rather than Clovis, the town near Blackwater Draw that gave the type of point its name.[25]

Lifestyle

Clovis hunter-gatherers are characterized as "high-technology foragers" who utilized sophisticated technology to maintain access to resources under conditions of high mobility.[26] In many Clovis localities, the stone tools found at a site were hundreds of kilometers away from the source stone outcrop, in one case over 900 kilometres (560 mi) away.[27] The people who produced the Clovis culture probably had a low population density but with geographically extensive cultural networks.[10] The Clovis culture is suggested to have heavily utilized hides, wood, and natural fibres, though no direct evidence of this has been preserved.[28] Clovis culture artifacts have often been found associated with big game, including proboscideans (Columbian mammoth, mastodon,[4] and the gomphothere Cuvieronius[29]) bison,[4] equines of the genus Equus,[30] and the extinct camel Camelops.[31] A handful of sites possibly suggest the hunting of caribou/reindeer, peccaries (Platygonus, Mylohyus), ground sloths (Paramylodon), glyptodonts (Glyptotherium), tapirs, and the llama Hemiauchenia.[4][32] Proboscideans (especially mammoths) are the most common recorded species found in Clovis sites, followed by bison. However, the Clovis culture is not exclusively associated with large animals, with several sites showing the exploitation of small game like tortoises and jackrabbits.[4] It is generally agreed that the people who produced the Clovis culture were reliant on big game for a significant portion of their diet (while also consuming smaller animals and plants),[3] though to what degree they were reliant on megafauna is disputed, with some authors arguing for a generalist hunter-gatherer lifestyle that also involved the occasional targeting of megafauna.[4][33] The effectiveness of Clovis tools for hunting proboscideans has been contested by some authors, though others have asserted that Clovis points were likely capable of killing proboscideans, noting that replica Clovis points have been able to penetrate elephant hide in experimental tests, and that groups of hunter-gatherers in Africa have been observed killing elephants using spears.[34]

In the Southern Plains, Clovis people created campsites of considerable size, which are often on the periphery of the region near sources of workable stone, from which they are suggested to have seasonally migrated into the plains to hunt megafauna. In the southeast, Clovis peoples created large camps that may have served as "staging areas", which may have been seasonally occupied, where a number of bands may have gathered for social occasions.[3] At Jake Bluff in northern Oklahoma, Clovis points are associated with numerous butchered Bison antiquus bones, which represented a bison herd of at least 22 individuals. At the time of deposition, the site was a steep-sided arroyo (dry watercourse) that formed a dead end, suggesting that hunters trapped the bison herd within the arroyo before killing them.[35]

Megafauna extinction

Beginning in the 1950s, Paul S. Martin proposed the "overkill hypothesis", suggesting that the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions in North America were driven by human hunting, including by Clovis peoples, with the hunting and extinction of large herbivores having a knock-on effect causing the extinction of large carnivores. This suggestion has been the subject of controversy.[36] The timing of megafauna extinction in North America also coincides with major climatic changes, making it difficult to disentangle the effects of various factors.[37] In a 2012 survey of archaeologists in The SAA Archaeological Record, 63% of respondents said that megafauna extinctions were likely the result of a "combination of factors".[38]

الوراثة

The only known Clovis burial is that of Anzick-1, an infant boy who was found near Wilsall, Montana, in 1968. The body was associated with over 100 stone and bone artifacts, all of which were stained with red ocher, and it dates to approximately 12,990–12,840 years BP.[39] Sequencing of his genome demonstrates that he belonged to a population that is ancestral to many contemporary Indigenous peoples of the Americas,[9] particularly those from Central and South America, and less related to those from contemporary North America, including northern Mexico,[9][40] though there is considerable variability in the genetic closeness of Central and South American indigenous peoples to Anzick-1, with older ancient South American remains generally being closer, suggesting that the Native American population had already diverged into multiple genetically distinct groups by the time of the Clovis culture, followed by subsequent migration of these populations later in the Holocene.[41] Like other Native Americans, Anzick-1 is closely related to Siberian peoples, confirming the Asian origin of the Clovis culture.[9] He belongs to Y chromosome Haplogroup Q-L54, which is common among contemporary Native Americans, and to mitochondrial haplogroup D4h3a, which is rare among contemporary Native Americans (occurring in only 1.4%, primarily along the Pacific coast) but more common in the very earliest Indigenous Americans.[9]


Distribution and chronology

Some authors have suggested that the Clovis culture lasted for a relatively short period of a few centuries, with a 2020 study suggesting a temporal range, based on ten securely radiocarbon-dated Clovis sites, of 13,050 to 12,750 calibrated years BP, ending subsequent to the onset of the Younger Dryas,[18] consistent with the results obtained in a 2007 study by the same authors.[42] Other authors have argued that some sites extend the range of the Clovis culture back to 13,500 years BP, though the dating for these earlier sites is not secure.[37] Some scholars have supported a long chronology for Clovis of around 1,500 years.[10]

Historically, many authors argued for a "Clovis first" paradigm, where Clovis, which represents the earliest recognisable archaeological culture in North America,[10] were suggested to represent the earliest inhabitants of the Americas south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. However, since the beginning of the 21st century, this hypothesis has been abandoned by most researchers,[38] as several widely accepted sites, notably Monte Verde II in Chile (c. 14,500 years BP)[43] as well as Paisley Caves in Oregon (c. 14,200 years BP)[44] and Cooper's Ferry in Idaho (c. 15,800 years BP)[45] are suggested to be considerably older than the oldest Clovis sites. Historically, it was suggested that the ancestors of the people who produced the Clovis culture migrated into North America along the "ice-free corridor", but many later scholars have suggested that a migration along the Pacific coast is more likely.[46]

The Clovis culture is known from localities across North America, from southern Canada[31] to northern Mexico and across the east and west of the continent.[18] The area of its origin remains unclear, though the development of fluted Clovis points appears to have occurred in North America south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and not in Beringia. The Clovis culture may have originated from the Dyuktai lithic style widespread in Beringia. While some authors have suggested that the Clovis culture resulted from diffusion of traditions through an already pre-existing Paleoindian population, others have asserted that the culture likely originated from the expansion of a single population.[47] In Western North America, the Clovis culture was contemporaneous with and perhaps preceded by the Western Stemmed Tradition, which produced unfluted projectile points,[44] with the Western Stemmed Tradition continuing in the region for several thousand years after the end of Clovis.[48]

The end of the Clovis culture may have been driven by the decline of the megafauna that the Clovis hunted, as well as decreasing mobility, resulting in local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across North America.[12] This is generally considered to be the result of normal cultural change through time.[12][17] There is no evidence that the disappearance of the Clovis culture was the result of the onset of the Younger Dryas, or that there was a population decline of Paleoindians following the end of the Clovis culture.[49]

The Clovis culture was succeeded by various regional point styles, such as the Folsom tradition in central North America,[13] the Cumberland point in mid/southern North America,[14] the Suwannee and Simpson points in the southeast,[15] and the Gainey points in the northeast-Great Lakes region.[16] The Clovis and Folsom traditions may have overlapped, perhaps for around 80–400 years.[17]

A number of authors have suggested that the Clovis culture is ancestral to other fluted point-producing cultures in Central and South America, like the widespread Fishtail or Fell point style.[20]


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فرضية الكلوڤيس الأول/الأصل الواحد

المقالة الرئيسية: استيطان الأمريكتين

بدائل للكلوڤيس الأول

دليل على الاستيطان البشري قبل كلوڤيس

طريق الهجرة الساحلي

فرضية السلوترين

المقالة الرئيسية: فرضية السلوترين

الفرضية الوراثية للتفرغ الشرقي/الغربي

المقالة الرئيسية: التاريخ الوراثي للشعوب الأصلية في الأمريكتين

مواقع أخرى

انظر أيضاً

المصادر

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قراءات إضافية

  • Dixon, E. James (1999). Bones, Boats and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2057-0. OCLC 42022335.
  • Kennett, D. J.; Kennett, J. P.; West, A.; Mercer, C.; Que Hee, S. S.; Bement, L.; Bunch, T. E.; Sellers, M.; Wolbach, W. S. (2009). "Nanodiamonds in the Younger Dryas Boundary Sediment Layer". Science. 323 (5910): 94. doi:10.1126/science.1162819. PMID 19119227. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |display-authors=9 (help)
  • Madsen, David B. (2004). Entering America: northeast Asia and Beringia before the last glacial maximum. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-786-7.
  • Schurr, Theodore G. (2000). "Mitochondrial DNA and the Peopling of the New World". American Scientist. 88 (3): 246–253. doi:10.1511/2000.3.246. ISSN 0003-0996.
  • Stanford, Dennis; and Bruce Bradley (2002). "Ocean Trails and Prairie Paths? Thoughts About Clovis Origins." in edited proceedings of The Fourth Wattis Symposium, 'The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World,' October 2, 1999. Nina G. Jablonski (ed.) The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World (Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, No. 27.): 255–271, San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences. 
  • Stanford DJ, Bradley BA (2012). Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22783-5.
  • Straus, Lawrence G. (April 2000). "Solutrean Settlement of North America? A Review of Reality". American Antiquity. Society for American Archaeology. 65 (2): 219–226. doi:10.2307/2694056. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 2694056.


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