تفشي ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي

تفشي ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي
Hepatitis C virus
HCV EM picture 2.png
Electron micrograph of hepatitis C virus purified from cell culture. Scale: black bar = 50 nanometres
تصنيف الفيروسات
Group:
Group IV ((+)ssRNA)
Family:
ڤيروسات مصفرة
Genus:
Hepacivirus
Species:
ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي

ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي Hepatitis C virus (HCV)، هو ڤيروس صغير (55-65 ن.م) مغلف، حساس-موجب، ذو رنا فردي من فصيلة الڤيروسات المصفرة. ڤيروس التهاب الكبد لوبائي سي يسبب التهاب الكبد الڤيروسي سي في البشر. ويقدر أن هذا الڤيروس يتسبب في 25% من حالات التليف الكبدي و25% من حالات سرطان الخلايا الكبدية في العالم. في اليابان أكثر من 70% من الحالات المصابة بالتليف الكبدي وكثر من 80% من الحالات المصابة بسرطان الكبد تظهر فيها عدوى ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي.

تقترح دراسات التاريخ لطبيعي من البيانات أن الإصابة بالتليف الكبدي أبطأ لدى الأشخاص المصابون بالعدوى مثل الأطفال والبالغون الصغر، حيث تكون أبطاً بنسبة 5% في المصابين بالتليف الكبدي في العشرين سنة الأولى من عمرهم، عن الأشخاص المصابون بالعدوى في البالغين الأكبر سناً، حيث تتسبب العدوى في خدوث تليف الكبد ل10-20% من المصابين في العشرين سنة الأولى من حياتهم.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

الانتشار

انتشار ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي في العالم، 1999

تقدر منظمة الصحة العالمية المصابون بهذا الڤيروس بأكثر من 170 مليون شخص.[1]

معدلات الانتشار واسعة جداً، أمريكا الشمالية، اوروبا، أستراليا، والشرق الأقصى (أكثر من 2.5%)؛ بعض بلدان البحر المتوسط، أمريكا الجنوبية، أفريقيا والشرق الأوسط (2.5% إلى 10%)؛ بوليڤيا، بوروندي، الكاميرون، مصر، الگابون، غينيا، منغوليا ورواندا (أقل من 10%).

في الولايات المتحدة يقدر أن هناك 2.7 مليون شخص مصابون بعدوى مزمنة.[2] في الولايات المتحدة يتسبب هذا الڤيروس في وفاة 8000 إلى 13.000 شخص سنوياً ومعظمهم من قاموا بعمليات زراعة كبد في الولايات المتحدة مصابون بعدوى مزمنة من هذا الڤيروس. في أمريكا الجنوبية معدل الإصابة أكبر من 60%.[3]

في اوروپا أكثر من 1% من السكان لديهم أجسام مناعية من هذا الڤيروس.[4] يقدر أن هناك 2.5 مليون مصاب بالڤيروس في اوروپا. في إيطاليا أكبر معدلات انتشار للفيروس على مستوى اوروپا، حيث تصل إلى 3.5-4.5%.[5] وترتفع المعدلات إلى أكثر من 20% في جنوب البلاد.[6]في المملكة المتحدة يوجد 200.000 شخص بالغ يحملون الڤيروس.[7]

في إيطاليا يوجد أكثر من 1.6 مليون شخص مصاب بعدوى هذا الڤيروس. في پاكستان تبلغ معدلات حاملوا الأجسام المناعية أكثر من 5%.


الإصابة

من الصعب تقدير العدوى بهذا الڤيروس بأنها <25% من الحالات المصابة بالتهاب الكبد الوبائي سي الحاد. 20% منها أظهرت إختبارات طبيعية لوظائف الكبد بالرغم من العدوى.

في الولايات المتحدة وصلة ذروة العدوى في 1989 حيث كان عدد الحالات أكثر من 240.000 شخص. وحاليا تظهر 20-30.000 حالات جديدة سنوياً.

في كندا تصل معدلات العدوى إلى 20 لكل مليون شخص (2004)، 16 لكل مليون شخص (2006) و22 لكل مليون في 2008.[8]

الانتقال

تم تحديد عدة طرق لانتقال العدوى. وتشمل تعاطي المخدرات عن طريق الحقن، نقل الدم ومنتجاته، النشاط الجنسي، غسيل الكلى، والانتقال للأجنة عن طريق الأم، وزراعة الأعضاء. ومع ذلك في أكثر من 30% من الحالات لا يوجد أي من الطرق المعروفة السابقة لنقل العدوى. يزداد انتشار الأجسام المضادة بتقدم العمر.

Certain genotypes have been associated with certain transmission routes: subtypes 1a and 3a are associated with intravenous drug use; subtype 1b mainly spread via blood transfusion and various other nosocomial modes of transmission. It should be noted that this association is not absolute.

تعاطي المخدرات عن طريق الحقن

The prevalence of Hepatitis C among intravenous drug users is ~80%.[4] The rate differs somewhat between countries with Australia reporting a 75% rate[9] and 90% in Pakistan[10]

In the United States ~60% of all hepatitis C is due to intravenous drug use.

A prospective study in the United Kingdom estimated the rate of acquisition of the virus to be 0.4% per year of drug use.[11] A study in Ireland estimated the rate to be 0.66% per year.[12]

نقل الدم

Before the introduction of routine hepatitis C screening of blood the incidence of post transfusion hepatitis in the US was about 5% per patient (1 per 200 units).[13] This risk has now dropped to ~1/30 million units. In haemophiliacs the prevalence of hepatitis c is >90%.

النشاط الجنسي

ينتقل ڤيروس التهاب الكبد الوبائي سي جنسياً لكنه أظهر معدل انتقال منخفض.[14][15]

المعدل بين الرجال ممن يقيمون علاقات جنسية مع رجال أكثر ارتفاعاً (4-8%) عن عموم السكان.

غسيل الكلى

معدلات الانتشار بين مرضى غسيل الكلى أعلى من 50%.[16] تقلل التحاليل والعلاجات الخاصة بإلتهاب الكبد الوبائي سي من إنتشار الڤيروس. لا تزال معدلات الخطورة أعلى من 1.38-1.9%/سنوياً.[17] Transmission within dialysis units has been reported.[18]

الولادة

ينتقل الڤيروس في فترة الولادة. لا تقلل الولادة القيصرية من إحتمال إنتقال الڤيروس.

زراعة الأعضاء

ترتبط زراعة الكلى في إيطاليا بإنتشر 33% من الحالات.[19] وهناك عامل خلط حيث كان جميع زارعي الكلى يقومون بغسيل الكلى وقد يكون إنتقال الڤيروس قد حدث قبل الزرع.

العدوى العرضية

تصل معدلات الإصابة العرضية بين 0.2 و10%.[20]

التراكيب الوراثية

Based on genetic differences between HCV isolates, the hepatitis C virus species is classified into seven genotypes (1-7) with several subtypes within each genotype (represented by lower-cased letters).[21][22] Subtypes are further broken down into quasispecies based on their genetic diversity. Genotypes differ by 30-35% of the nucleotide sites over the complete genome.[23] The difference in genomic composition of subtypes of a genotype is usually ~20-25%. Currently there are over 80 subtypes recognised. Subtypes 1a and 1b are found worldwide and cause 60% of all cases.

While there were initially multiple proposed typing schemes a consensus was reached in 1994 at the 2nd International Conference of HCV and Related Viruses [24]

Over 85% of the world's nearly 170 million hepatitis C virus case live in African, Southeast Asian and Middle Eastern countries where genotypes 4-6 are common. Genotype 4 is highly prevalent in Egypt with more than 19% of the population infected and chronic HCV representing one of the top five leading causes of death. This is due in part to ineffective response to interferon alpha treatment against this genotype.[25]

التوزيع الوراثي

The preponderance and distribution of the various HCV genotypes varies considerably between countries and regions. Additionally it tends to differ by route of transmission: genotypes 1a and 3a are closely associated with intravenous drug use and genotype 1b is seen more often in patients who acquire HCV through blood transfusion.[26] Recombinant strains have also been reported.

التركيب الوراثي 1

13 subtypes have been identified: these have been termed 1a to 1m.

In North America, genotype 1a predominates followed by 1b, 2a, 2b, and 3a.[27] In Europe, genotype 1b is predominant followed by 2a, 2b, 2c, and 3a.

This pattern is also found in South Korea (48% cases) [28][29] Mongolia,[30] and Morocco[31]

In Uzbekistan type 1 is predominant followed in frequency by type 3.[32] This pattern is also found in Belarus, Moldova and Russia,[33] China,[34] Indonesia,[35] Iran,[36] and Taiwan.[37] In Germany 70% of cases are due to type 1 (20% 1a and 80% 1b) and 25% to type 3.[26] This pattern is also found in Brazil[38] and Western Siberia.[39]

Genotypes 1 and 2 are both common in West Africa and have considerable genomic variability.[40]

In the الولايات المتحدة genotype 1 is responsible for ~75% of cases.

In Ireland the genotype associated with an outbreak due to the use of contaminated anti-D immunoglobulin was 1b.[41] In Romania ~90% of cases are due to type 1b[42] This appears to have been the use of blood transfusions in pregnancy and surgery.

In Greece genotype 1 accounts for ~40% cases.[43] In Poland 55% of cases are due to type 1.[44]

Genotype 1 accounts for ~60% of all cases in Italy[45] and 1b is the most common subtype.[6] The prevalence of this genotype there is thought to be due to the use of improperly sterilised reusable syringes in the past.

In هولندا this genotype accounts for ~50% of cases.[46] In Croatia this genotype accounts for ~60% of cases.[47]

In Tunisia 90% of cases are due to type 1b.[48]

95% of isolates in تركيا are type 1.[49] The most common subtype is 1b.[50] The strains in Turkey are most closely related to those in Japan, Europe and the USA.

In Japan, subtype 1b is responsible for up to 73% of cases.[51]

In Syria 19% of cases were genotype 1a and 27% were genotype 1b.[52]

In Jordan 40% of cases were type 1a, 33% were type 1b and 26.7% were type 4.[53]

In Lebanon this genotype is the second most common (after genotype 4) in non drug users: genotype 1a accounts for 12.5%-43.3% of cases and 1b for 8.0-34.4%.[54]

Genotype 1a and 1b have been reported from Bahrain but their prevalence is not known.[55]

This is the second most common type in Thailand (after genotype 3).[56] Subtype 1a accounted for 21% of all cases and 1b for 13.8%.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

التركيب الوراثي 2

Eighteen subtypes are known (2a-2r). This genotype accounts for 8% of cases in Europe.[57] In Greece genotype 2 accounts for ~7% cases.[43] In Belgium type 2 infection (6% of cases) has been associated with invasive medical examinations.[58] In the Netherlands this type accounts for ~10% of cases.[46] In Italy this type accounts for 25% of cases.[45]

Subtypes 2a and 2b are relatively common in North America, Europe and Japan. Subtype 2c is common in northern Italy.

Subtype 2k/1b was originally isolated from St Petersburg, Russia but has also been identified in Cyprus.[59] It is associated with intravenous drug use.

The genotype 2 strains from Africa can be divided into four clades that correlate with their country of origin: (1) Cameroon and Central African Republic; (2) Benin, Burkina Faso and Ghana';(3) the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal;(4) Madagascar.[60]

In Guinea-Bissau type 2 accounts for the vast bulk of the isolates.[61] In Ghana 85% of the isolates are type 2.[62]

In South Korea type 2 accounts for almost 50% of cases.[29]

Although type 4 is predominant in Egypt, type 2 also occurs there.[63]

التركيب الوراثي 3

Eleven subtypes are known (3a-3j). This genotype is the predominant type in India[64] and Pakistan[65] followed by type 1. In Pakistan type 3 accounts for 55-85% cases and type 1 10%.[66][67] It has been suggested that the pattern in Pakistan is due to the reuse of medical equipment without adequate sterilization.[65] Type 3 accounts for 60% of isolates in India.[68] This pattern is also found in north east Brazil where type 3 is the most common isolate (50% cases) followed by type 1 (40% cases).[69]

Subtype 3a is particularly prevalent in intravenous drug abusers in Europe and the United States.[70]

In Greece and Poland genotype 3 accounts for ~30% cases.[43][44] The proportion of type 3 infections in Greece may be higher than this with other studies reporting rates of 40%.[71] In the Netherlands this type accounts for ~30% cases.[46] In Croatia this genotype accounts for ~35% of cases.[47] In Italy this genotype accounts for ~5% of cases.[45]

In Iran genotype 3a accounts for 58% of cases.[72]

Genotype 3 is the predominate isolate among drug users in Lebanon where is responsible for 57.1% of cases.[73] Among non drug users genotype 4 is the most common (34.2-53.3% of cases) followed by type 1 (genotype 1a: 12.5-43.3%; genotype 1b: 8.0-34.4%).[54]

Although genotype 4 is predominant in Egypt, type 3 also occurs[63]

This is the most common type in Thailand accounting for almost 40% of cases[56] All the type 3 strains analysed in this study were of the 3a subtype.

التركيب الوراثي 4

Worldwide genotype 4 accounts for ~20% of all chronic infections.[74] Eighteen subtypes are known (4a - 4r).

الشرق الأوسط

Curiously genotype 4 is the most common genotype in the Arab countries of the Middle East while rare in the non Arab countries.[54][75] In Egypt (where the prevalence rate is ~13% of the population)[76] the distribution of this genotype (specifically subtype 4a) is thought to be due to the mass treatment programmes for schistosomiasis in that country from the 1930s until the 1980s when oral treatment became available.[77][78] In Egypt genotype 4 is responsible for >90% of cases.

It is the most common genotype in Saudi Arabia (62% of all cases).[79] In the United Arab Emirates this genotype accounted for 46% of isolated from females.[80] Curiously in the same study genotype 3a was the most common type in the males. This genotype has been identified in Yemen but its overall prevalence has not yet been reported.[81] In Syria this genotype accounts for 30% of cases.[52] In Jordan this genotype accounts for 26.7% of cases.[53] In Lebanon this genotype is the most common in non drug users (34.2-53.3% of cases)[54] In Kuwait this genotype may account for 64% of cases.[82] It is the most common genotype in Qatar.[83] It has been reported from Bahrain but its prevalence is not known.[55]

أفريقيا

Within Africa both types 1 and 4 are common in Cameroon[84] and Kenya.[85] Type 4 is also found in the Central African Republic,[86] Gabon,[87] Nigeria[88] the Republic of the Congo,[89] South Africa,[90] Sudan[91] Tanzania[92] and Uganda.[93] The majority of isolates from the Central African Republic (82%) are of this genotype.[94] This is similar to that found in south Cameroon where 75% of isolates are type 4.[95]

35% of cases in Libya are of genotype 4.[96]

اوروپا

Outside of Africa and the Middle East this genotype has been isolated in several European countries including Austria,[97] Belarus,[98] Belgium,[99] Croatia,[47] Cyprus,[100] Denmark,[101] France,[102] Greece[103] Italy[104][105] Portugal,[106] the Netherlands,[107] Romania,[42] Sicily,[108] Spain[109] and تركيا.[49]

Within Europe the prevalence of type 4 varies between countries from 7% in northern Europe to 24% in southern Europe.[110] In Greece genotype 4 accounts for ~15% cases.[43] A similar proportion has been reported in Poland.[111] In the Netherlands this type accounts for ~10% of cases.[46] In Croatia this genotype accounts for ~3% of cases.[47] In Spain this genotype has been reported to be responsible for ~20% of cases.[112] In Italy this type accounts for ~5% of cases.[45]

الأمريكتين

In the Americas it has been isolated in Brazil,[38] Canada,[113] Martinique,[114] the United States[115] and Venezuela.[116]

آسيا

It has also been isolated in Asia: India,[68] Iran[117] and South Korea.[29]

التركيب الوراثي 5

No subtypes have yet been identified for this genotype. It is found mainly in South Africa[118] (40% of cases) but it is also found in Austria,[97] Belgium,[119] Canada,[113] Cyprus,[100] Ethiopia,[120] France,[121] Germany,[122] Martinique,[114] Namibia,[123] Pakistan,[124] Saudi Arabia[125] Spain[126] and Syria.[127]

An unusually large number of cases of type 5a have been reported from Rhodes.[43]

التركيب الوراثي 6

21 subtypes of genotype 6 have been recognised. It is most common genotype in Asia and represents perhaps 1/3 of all cases.[128] It is found in Cambodia,[129] China (20% cases),[130] Hong Kong, India,[68] Indonesia,[131]Laos,[132] Myanmar (48% of cases),[133] Pakistan,[124] تايلند[134] and Vietnam (52% of cases).[135] It is also found in Americans and Australians[136] of Asian origin. It has occasionally been isolated in Canada[113] and Martinique.[114] It is a diverse genotype and now contains genotypes that were originally classified as genotypes 7, 8, 9 and 11.[131] It has been reported in Germany.[122] It has also been isolated in Turkey.[137]

In Thailand this type accounts for 20% of cases.[56]

التركيب الوراثي 7

هو من أحدث التركيبات الوراثية المعرفة والتركيب الوراثي المفرد الوحيد الموصوف حتى الآن.

المصادر

  1. ^ Anonymous (1999). "Global surveillance and control of hepatitis C. Report of a WHO Consultation organized in collaboration with the Viral Hepatitis Prevention Board, Antwerp, Belgium". J Viral Hepat. 6 (1): 35–47. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2893.1999.6120139.x. PMID 10847128.
  2. ^ Alter MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, McQuillan GM, Gao F, Moyer LA, Kaslow RA, Margolis HS (1999). "The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994". N Engl J Med. 341 (8): 556–562. doi:10.1056/NEJM199908193410802. PMID 10451460.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Pérez CM, Suárez E, Torres EA, Román K, Colón V (2005). "Seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus and associated risk behaviours: a population-based study in San Juan, Puerto Rico". Int J Epidemiol. 34 (3): 593–599. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi059. PMID 15802378.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ أ ب Touzet S, Kraemer L, Colin C, Pradat P, Lanoir D, Bailly F, Coppola RC, Sauleda S, Thursz MR; et al. (2000). "Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in seven European Union countries: a critical analysis of the literature. HENCORE Group. (Hepatitis C European Network for Co-operative Research". Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 12 (6): 667–678. doi:10.1097/00042737-200012060-00017. PMID 10912488. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Ciccozzi M, Lo Presti A, Ciccaglione AR, Zehender G, Ciotti M (2012) Phylogeny and phylodynamics of Hepatitis C in Italy. BMC Infect Dis 12 Suppl 2:S5. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-S2-S5
  6. ^ أ ب Maio G, Argenio P, Stroffolini T, Bozza A, Sacco L, Tosti ME, Intorcia M, Fossi E, Alessio G; et al. (2000). "Hepatitis C virus infection and alanine transaminase levels in the general population: a survey in a southern Italian town". J Hepatol. 33 (1): 116–120. doi:10.1016/S0168-8278(00)80167-1. PMID 10905594. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Hepatitis C strategy for England. UK: Department of Health; [2002]. http://www.doh.gov.uk/assetRoot/04/07/59/86/04075986.pdf.
  8. ^ Anonymous (2009) Epidemiology of acute Hepatitis C infection in Canada: Results from the enhanced hepatitis strain surveillance system (EHSSS). Public Health Agency of Canada
  9. ^ Maher L, Chant K, Jalaludin B, Sargent P (2004). "Risk behaviours and antibody hepatitis B and C prevalence among injecting drug users in south-western Sydney, Australia". J Gastoenterology Hepatology. 19 (10): 1114–1120. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2004.03438.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Muhammad N, Jan MA (2005). "Frequency of hepatitis "C" in Buner, NWFP". J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 15 (1): 11–14. PMID 15670516.
  11. ^ Judd A, Hickman M, Jones S, McDonald T, Parry JV, Stimson GV, Hall AJ (2005). "Incidence of hepatitis C virus and HIV among new injecting drug users in London: prospective cohort study". BMJ. 330 (7481): 24–25. doi:10.1136/bmj.38286.841227.7C. PMC 539846. PMID 15533854.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Smyth B, O'Connor JJ, Barry J, Keenan E (2003). "Retrospective cohort study examining incidence of HIV and hepatitis C infection among injecting drug users in Dublin". J Epidemiol Commun Health. 57 (4): 310–311. doi:10.1136/jech.57.4.310.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Donahue JG, Muñoz A, Ness PM, Brown DE Jr, Yawn DH, McAllister HA Jr, Reitz BA, Nelson KE (1992). "The declining risk of post-transfusion hepatitis C virus infection". N Engl J Med. 327 (6): 369–373. doi:10.1056/NEJM199208063270601. PMID 1320736.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Magder LS, Fix AD, Mikhail NN, Mohamed MK, Abdel-Hamid M, Abdel-Aziz F, Medhat A, Strickland GT (2005). "Estimation of the risk of transmission of hepatitis C between spouses in Egypt based on seroprevalence data". Int J Epidemiol. 34 (1): 160–165. doi:10.1093/ije/dyh370. PMID 15647312.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Vandelli C, Renzo F, Romanò L, Tisminetzky S, De Palma M, Stroffolini T, Ventura E, Zanetti A (2004). "Lack of evidence of sexual transmission of hepatitis C among monogamous couples: results of a 10-year prospective follow-up study". Am J Gastroenterol. 99 (5): 855–859. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2004.04150.x. PMID 15128350.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Hayashi J, Yoshimura E, Nabeshima A, Kishihara Y, Ikematsu H, Hirata M, Maeda Y, Kashiwagi S (1994). "Seroepidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in hemodialysis patients and the general population in Fukuoka and Okinawa, Japan". J Gastroenterol. 29 (3): 276–281. doi:10.1007/BF02358365. PMID 7520320.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Halfon P, Khiri H, Feryn JM, Sayada C, Chanas M, Ouzan D (1999). "Prospective virological follow-up of hepatitis C infection in a haemodialysis unit". J Viral Hepat. 5 (2): 115–121. PMID 9572036.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Kalinina O, Norder H, Vetrov T, Zhdanov K, Barzunova M, Plotnikova V, Mukomolov S, Magnius LO (2001). "Shift in predominating subtype of HCV from 1b to 3a in St. Petersburg mediated by increase in injecting drug use". J Med Virol. 65 (3): 517–524. doi:10.1002/jmv.2066. PMID 11596087.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Angelico M, Tisone G, Rapicetta M, Pisani F, Gandin C, Chionne P, Dettori S, Iaria G, Danese V; et al. (1997). "Hepatitis C virus infection in Italian kidney graft recipients. Changing risk factors and hepatitis C virus genotypes". Ital J Gastroenterology Hepatology. 29: 448–455. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Corey KE, Servoss JC, Casson DR, Kim AY, Robbins GK, Franzini J, Twitchell K, Loomis SC, Abraczinskas DR, Terella AM, Dienstag JL, Chung RT (2010) Pilot study of postexposure prophylaxis for hepatitis C virus in healthcare workers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 30:1000-1005
  21. ^ Simmonds P, Holmes EC, Cha TA, Chan SW, McOmish F, Irvine B, Beall E, Yap PL, Kolberg J; et al. (1993). "Classification of hepatitis C virus into six major genotypes and a series of subtypes by phylogenetic analysis of the NS-5 region". J Gen Virol. 74 (11): 2391–2399. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-74-11-2391. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Nakano, Tatsunori; Lau, Gillian M. G.; Lau, Grace M. L.; Sugiyama, Masaya; Mizokami, Masashi (10/9/2011). "An updated analysis of hepatitis C virus genotypes and subtypes based on the complete coding region". Liver International. 32 (2): 339–45. doi:10.1111/j.1478-3231.2011.02684.x. PMID 22142261. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  23. ^ Ohno O, Mizokami M, Wu RR, Saleh MG, Ohba K, Orito E, Mukaide M, Williams R, Lau JY; et al. (2007). "New hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotyping system that allows for identification of HCV genotypes 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4, 5a, and 6a". J Clin Microbiol. 35 (1): 201–207. PMC 229539. PMID 8968908. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Simmonds P, Alberti A, Alter HJ, Bonino F, Bradley DW, Brechot C, Brouwer JT, Chan SW, Chayama K, Chen DS, Choo Q-L, Colombo M, Cuypers HTM, Date T, Dusheiko GM, Esteban JI, Fay O, Hadziyannis SJ, Han J, Hatzakis A, Holmes EC, Hotta H, Houghton M, Irvine B, Kohara M, Kolberg JA, Kuo G, Lau JYN, Lelie PN, Maertens G, McOmish F, Miyamura T, Mizokami M, Nomoto A, Prince M, Reesink HW, Rice C, Roggendorf M, Schalm SW, Shikata T, Shimotohno K, Stuyver L, Trépo C, Weiner A, Yap PL and Urdea MS, Letter, Hepatology 19:1321–1324
  25. ^ Timm J, Neukamm M, Kuntzen T, Kim AY, Chung RT, Brander C, Lauer GM, Walker BD, Allen TM; et al. (2007). "Characterization of full-length hepatitis C virus genotype 4 sequences". J Viral Hepat. 14 (5): 330–337. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2893.2006.00792.x. PMID 17439522. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ أ ب Berg T, Hopf U, Stark K, Baumgarten R, Lobeck H, Schreier E (1997). "Distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes in German patients with chronic hepatitis C: correlation with clinical and virological parameters". J Hepatol. 26 (3): 484–491. doi:10.1016/S0168-8278(97)80411-4. PMID 9075653.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Burguete-García AI, Conde-González CJ, Jiménez-Méndez R, Juárez-Díaz Y, Meda-Monzón E, Torres-Poveda K, Madrid-Marina V (2011). "Hepatitis C seroprevalence and correlation between viral load and viral genotype among primary care clients in Mexico". Salud Publica Mex. 53 (1): S7–12.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Shin HR (2006). "Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Korea". Intervirology. 49 (1–2): 18–22. doi:10.1159/000087258. PMID 16166784.
  29. ^ أ ب ت Oh DJ, Park YM, Seo YI, Lee JS, Lee JY (2012). "Prevalence of Hepatitis C virus infections and distribution of Hepatitis C virus genotypes among Korean blood donors". Ann Lab Med. 32 (3): 210–215. doi:10.3343/alm.2012.32.3.210. PMC 3339302. PMID 22563557.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "Oh2012" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  30. ^ Takahashi M, Nishizawa T, Gotanda Y, Tsuda F, Komatsu F, Kawabata T, Hasegawa K, Altankhuu M, Chimedregzen U; et al. (2004). "High prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis A and E viruses and viremia of hepatitis B, C, and D viruses among apparently healthy populations in Mongolia". Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 11 (2): 392–398. PMC 371212. PMID 15013993. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Brahim I, Akil A, Mtairag EM, Pouillot R, Malki AE, Nadir S, Alaoui R, Njouom R, Pineau P, Ezzikouri S, Benjelloun S (2011) Morocco underwent a drift of circulating hepatitis C virus subtypes in recent decades. Arch Virol.
  32. ^ Kurbanov F, Tanaka Y, Sugauchi F, Kato H, Ruzibakiev R, Zalyalieva M, Yunusova Z, Mizokami M (2003). "Hepatitis C virus molecular epidemiology in Uzbekistan". J Med Virol. 69 (3): 367–375. doi:10.1002/jmv.10298. PMID 12526047.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Viazov S, Kuzin S, Paladi N, Tchernovetsky M, Isaeva E, Mazhul L, Vasychova F, Widell A, Roggendorf M; et al. (1997). "Hepatitis C virus genotypes in different regions of the former Soviet Union (Russia, Belarus, Moldova, and Uzbekistan)". J Med Virol. 53 (1): 36–40. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199709)53:1<36::AID-JMV7>3.0.CO;2-R. PMID 9298730. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Zhou Y, Wang X, Mao Q, Fan Y, Zhu Y, Zhang X, Lan L, Jiang L, Tan W; et al. (2009). "Changes in modes of hepatitis C infection acquisition and genotypes in southwest China". J Clin Virol. 46 (3): 230–233. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2009.08.003. PMID 19729342. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Utama A, Budiarto BR, Monasari D, Octavia TI, Chandra IS, Gani RA, Hasan I, Sanityoso A, Miskad UA; et al. (2008). "Hepatitis C virus genotype in blood donors and associated liver disease in Indonesia". Intervirology. 51 (6): 410–416. doi:10.1159/000205515. PMID 19258720. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Samimi-Rad K, Nategh R, Malekzadeh R, Norder H, Magnius L (2004). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Iran as reflected by phylogenetic analysis of the NS5B region". J Med Virol. 74 (2): 246–252. doi:10.1002/jmv.20170. PMID 15332273.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Liu JY, Lin HH, Liu YC, Lee SS, Chen YL, Hung CC, Ko WC, Huang CK, Lai CH; et al. (2008). "Extremely high prevalence and genetic diversity of hepatitis C virus infection among HIV-infected injection drug users in Taiwan". Clin Infect Dis. 46 (11): 1761–1768. doi:10.1086/587992. PMID 18433337. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ أ ب Campiotto S, Pinho JR, Carrilho FJ, Da Silva LC, Souto FJ, Spinelli V, Pereira LM, Coelho HS, Silva AO; et al. (2005). "Geographic distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes in Brazil". Braz J Med Biol Res. 38 (1): 41–49. PMID 15665987. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Shustov AV, Kochneva GV, Sivolobova GF, Grazhdantseva AA, Gavrilova IV, Akinfeeva LA, Rakova IG, Aleshina MV, Bukin VN; et al. (2005). "Molecular epidemiology of the hepatitis C virus in Western Siberia". J Med Virol. 77 (3): 382–389. doi:10.1002/jmv.20467. PMID 16173011. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Jeannel D, Fretz C, Traore Y, Kohdjo N, Bigot A, Pê Gamy E, Jourdan G, Kourouma K, Maertens G; et al. (1998). "Evidence for high genetic diversity and long-term endemicity of hepatitis C virus genotypes 1 and 2 in West Africa". J Med Virol. 55 (2): 92–97. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199806)55:2<92::AID-JMV2>3.0.CO;2-I. PMID 9598927. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ Power JP, Lawlor E, Davidson F, Holmes EC, Yap PL, Simmonds P (1995). "Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of infection with hepatitis C virus in recipients of anti-D immunoglobulin". Lancet. 345 (8959): 1211–1213. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)91993-7. PMID 7739308.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ أ ب Sultana C, Oprisan G, Szmal C, Vagu C, Temereanca A, Dinu S, Teleman MD, Ruta S (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C virus strains from Romania". J Gastrointestin Liver Dis. 20 (3): 261–266. PMID 21961093.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Karatapanis S, Tsoplou P, Papastergiou V, Vasiageorgi A, Stampori M, Saitis I, Tsitsopoulos E, Lisgos P, Skorda L; et al. (2012). "Hepatitis C virus genotyping in Greece: unexpected high prevalence of genotype 5a in a Greek island". J Med Virol. 84 (2): 223–228. doi:10.1002/jmv.22249. PMID 22170541. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ أ ب Chlabicz S, Flisiak R, Kowalczuk O, Grzeszczuk A, Pytel-Krolczuk B, Prokopowicz D, Chyczewski L (2008). "Changing HCV genotypes distribution in Poland--relation to source and time of infection". J Clin Virol. 42 (2): 156–159. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2008.02.001. PMID 18353714.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ أ ب ت ث Matera G, Lamberti A, Quirino A, Foca` D, Giancotti A, Barreca GS, Guadagnino V, Liberto MC (2002) Changes in the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 4 in Calabria, southern Italy. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 42:169-173
  46. ^ أ ب ت ث de Vries MJ, te Rijdt B, van Nieuwkerk CM (2006). "Genotype distribution amongst hepatitis C patients in The Netherlands". Neth J Med. 64 (4): 109–113.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ أ ب ت ث Vince A, Iscić-Bes J, Zidovec Lepej S, Baća-Vrakela I, Bradarić N, Kurelac I, Vince DB (2006). "Distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes in Croatia--a 10 year retrospective study of four geographic regions". Coll Antropol. 30 (Suppl 2): 139–243.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "Vince2006" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  48. ^ Mejri S, Salah AB, Triki H, Alaya NB, Djebbi A, Dellagi K (2005). "Contrasting patterns of hepatitis C virus infection in two regions from Tunisia". J Med Virol. 76 (2): 185–193. doi:10.1002/jmv.20342. PMID 15834884.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ أ ب Bozdayi AM, Aslan N, Bozdayi G, Türkyilmaz AR, Sengezer T, Wend U, Erkan O, Aydemir F, Zakirhodjaev S; et al. (2004). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis B, C and D viruses in Turkish patients". Arch Virol. 149 (11): 2115–2129. doi:10.1007/s00705-004-0363-2. PMID 15503201. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Sunbul M, Khan A, Kurbanov F, Leblebicioglu H, Sugiyama M, Tanaka Y, Mizokami M (2013) Tracing the spread of Hepatitis C virus in Turkey: A phylogenetic analysis. Intervirology
  51. ^ Takada N, Takase S, Takada A, Date T (1993). "Differences in the hepatitis C virus genotypes in different countries". J Hepatol. 17 (3): 277–283. doi:10.1016/S0168-8278(05)80205-3. PMID 8391038.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ أ ب Abdulkarim AS, Zein NN, Germer JJ, Kolbert CP, Kabbani L, Krajnik KL, Hola A, Agha MN, Tourogman M, Persing DH (1998) Hepatitis C virus genotypes and hepatitis G virus in hemodialysis patients from Syria: identification of two novel hepatitis C virus subtypes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59(4):571-576
  53. ^ أ ب Bdour S (2002) Hepatitis C virus infection in Jordanian haemodialysis units: serological diagnosis and genotyping. J Med Microbiol 51(8):700-704
  54. ^ أ ب ت ث Sharara AI, Ramia S, Ramlawi F, Fares JE, Klayme S, Naman R (2007) Genotypes of hepatitis C virus (HCV) among positive Lebanese patients: comparison of data with that from other Middle Eastern countries. Epidemiol Infect 135(3):427-432 خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "Sharara2007" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  55. ^ أ ب Qadi AA, Tamim H, Ameen G, Bu-Ali A, Al-Arrayed S, Fawaz NA, Almawi WY (2004) Hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus prevalence among dialysis patients in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia: a survey by serologic and molecular methods. Am J Infect Control 32(8):493-495
  56. ^ أ ب ت Akkarathamrongsin S, Hacharoen P, Tangkijvanich P, Theamboonlers A, Tanaka Y, Mizokami M, Poovorawan Y (2013) Molecular epidemiology and genetic history of hepatitis C virus subtype 3a Infection in Thailand. Intervirology خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "Akkarathamrongsin2013" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  57. ^ Mangia A, Mottola L (2012). "What's new in HCV genotype 2 treatment". Liver Int. 32 (Suppl 1): 135–40. doi:10.1111/j.1478-3231.2011.02710.x. PMID 22212584.
  58. ^ Putzeys V, Gérard C, Gérard C, Bastens B, Wain E, Bataille C, Defrance P, Belaiche J, Belaiche J; et al. (2011). "Hepatitis C of genotype 2: the role of medical invasive exams". Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 74 (2): 277–280. PMID 21861311. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ Demetriou VL, Kyriakou E, Kostrikis LG (2011). "Near-full genome characterisation of two natural intergenotypic 2k/1b recombinant hepatitis C virus isolates". Adv Virol. 2011: 710438.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Markov PV, Pepin J, Frost E, Deslandes S, Labbé AC, Pybus OG (2009). "Phylogeography and molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C virus genotype 2 in Africa". J Gen Virol. 90 (9): 2086–2096. doi:10.1099/vir.0.011569-0.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ Plamondon M, Labbé AC, Frost E, Deslandes S, Alves AC, Bastien N, Pepin J (2007). "Hepatitis C virus infection in Guinea-Bissau: a sexually transmitted genotype 2 with parenteral amplification". PLoS ONE. 2 (4): e372.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. ^ Candotti D, Temple J, Sarkodie F, Allain JP (2003). "Frequent recovery and broad genotype 2 diversity characterize hepatitis C virus infection in Ghana, West Africa". J Virol. 77 (14): 7914–7923. doi:10.1128/JVI.77.14.7914-7923.2003. PMC 161936. PMID 12829831.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ أ ب Ebeid Mel-S, El-Bakry KA (2009) Cellular immune response to infection by different genotypes of hepatitis C virus. Indian J Clin Biochem 24(3):234-40. doi: 10.1007/s12291-009-0044-8 خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "Ebeid2012" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  64. ^ Das BR, Kundu B, Khandapkar R, Sahni S (2002). "Geographical distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes in India". Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 45 (3): 323–328. PMID 12785176.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ^ أ ب Idrees M, Riazuddin S (2008). "Frequency distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes in different geographical regions of Pakistan and their possible routes of transmission". BMC Infect Dis. 8: 69. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-8-69. PMC 2409346. PMID 18498666.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  66. ^ Ali A, Nisar M, Ahmad H, Saif N, Idrees M, Bajwa MA (2011). "Determination of HCV genotypes and viral loads in chronic HCV infected patients of Hazara Pakistan". Virol J. 8: 466. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-466. PMC 3198714. PMID 21982599.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  67. ^ Ali A, Ahmed H, Idrees M (2010). "Molecular epidemiology of Hepatitis C virus genotypes in Khyber Pakhtoonkhaw of Pakistan". Virol J. 7: 203. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-105. PMC 3060846. PMID 21385397.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  68. ^ أ ب ت Narahari S, Juwle A, Basak S, Saranath D (2009). "Prevalence and geographic distribution of Hepatitis C Virus genotypes in Indian patient cohort". Infect Genet Evol. 9 (4): 643–645. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2009.04.001. PMID 19460332.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Zarife MA, Silva LK, Silva MB, Lopes GB, Barreto ML, Teixeira Mda G, Dourado I, Reis MG (2006). "Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in north-eastern Brazil: a population-based study". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 100 (7): 663–668. doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.09.009. PMID 16386279.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ Pawlotsky JM, Tsakiris L, Roudot-Thoraval F, Pellet C, Stuyver L, Duval J, Dhumeaux D (1995). "Relationship between hepatitis C virus genotypes and sources of infection in patients with chronic hepatitis C". J Infect Dis. 171 (6): 1607–1610. doi:10.1093/infdis/171.6.1607. PMID 7769300.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  71. ^ Stamouli M, Panagiotou I, Kairis D, Michopoulou A, Skliris A, Totos G (2012). "Genotype distribution in chronic hepatitis C patients in Greece". Clin Lab. 58 (1–2): 173–176. PMID 22372362.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ Samimi-Rad K, Nasiri Toosi M, Masoudi-Nejad A, Najafi A, Rahimnia R, Asgari F, Shabestari AN, Hassanpour G, Alavian SM, Asgari F (2012) Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C virus among injection drug users in Iran: a slight change in prevalence of HCV genotypes over time. Arch Virol
  73. ^ Mahfoud Z, Kassak K, Kreidieh K, Shamra S, Ramia S (2010) Distribution of hepatitis C virus genotypes among injecting drug users in Lebanon. Virol J 7:96
  74. ^ Smith DB, athirana S, Davidson F, Lawlor E, Power J, Yap PL, Simmonds P (1997). "The origin of hepatitis C virus genotypes". J Gen Virol. 78 (2): 321–328. PMID 9018053.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  75. ^ Altuglu I, Soyler I, Ozacar T, Erensoy S (2008). "Distribut Curiously in the same stion of hepatitis C virus genotypes in patients with chronic hepatitis C infection in Western Turkey". Int J Infect Dis. 12 (3): 239–244. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2007.07.003. PMID 17942359.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  76. ^ Kamal SM (2009). "Hepatitis C genotype 4 therapy: increasing options and improving outcomes". Liver Int. 29 (Suppl 1): 39–48. doi:10.1111/j.1478-3231.2008.01930.x. PMID 19207965.
  77. ^ Tanaka Y, Agha S, Saudy N, Kurbanov F, Orito E, Kato T, Abo-Zeid M, Khalaf M, Miyakawa Y; et al. (2004). "Exponential spread of hepatitis C virus genotype 4a in Egypt". J Mol Evol. 58 (2): 191–195. doi:10.1007/s00239-003-2541-3. PMID 15042339. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  78. ^ Antaki N, Craxi A, Kamal S, Moucari R, Van , der Merwe S, Haffar S, Gadano A, Zein N; et al. (2010). "The neglected hepatitis C virus genotypes 4, 5 and 6: an international consensus report". Liver Int. 30 (3): 342–355. doi:10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02188.x. PMID 20015149. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  79. ^ Shobokshi OA (2003). "Hepatis C virus genotype 4". Saudi Med J Suppl. 2: S79–80.
  80. ^ Alfaresi MS (2011). "Prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes among positive UAE patients". Mol Biol Rep. 38 (4): 2719–2722. doi:10.1007/s11033-010-0415-5. PMID 21104026.
  81. ^ Ohno T, Mizokami M, Saleh MG, Orito E, Ohba KI, Wu RR, Koide T, Tibbs CJ, Nouri-Aria KT, Tokudome S, Williams R (1996) Usefulness and limitation of phylogenetic analysis for hepatitis C virus core region: application to isolates from Egyptian and Yemeni patients. Arch Virol 141(6):1101-1113
  82. ^ Hasan F, Askar H, Al Khalidi J, Al Shamali M, Al Kalaoui M, Al Nakib B (1999) Lack of transmission of hepatitis C virus following needlestick accidents. Hepatogastroenterology 46(27):1678-1681
  83. ^ John AK, Al KS, John A, Singh R, Derbala M. Audit of state-funded antiviral treatment for chronic hepatitis C in Qatar. East Mediterr Health J 16(11):1121-1127
  84. ^ Ndjomou J, Pybus OG, Matz B (2003). "Phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis C virus isolates indicates a unique pattern of endemic infection in Cameroon". J Gen Virol. 84 (9): 2333–2341. doi:10.1099/vir.0.19240-0.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  85. ^ Muasya T, Lore W, Yano K, Yatsuhashi H, Owiti FR, Fukuda M, Tamada MY, Kulundu J, Tukei J; et al. (2008). "Prevalence of hepatitis C virus and its genotypes among a cohort of drug users in Kenya". East Afr Med J. 85 (7): 318–325. PMID 19133420. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  86. ^ Fretz C, Jeannel D, Stuyver L, Hervé V, Lunel F, Boudifa A, Mathiot C, de Thé G, Fournel JJ; et al. (1995). "HCV infection in a rural population of the Central African Republic (CAR): evidence for three additional subtypes of genotype 4". J Med Virol. 47 (4): 435–437. doi:10.1002/jmv.1890470423. PMID 8636715. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ Xu LZ, Larzul D, Delaporte E, Bréchot C, Kremsdorf D (1994). "Hepatitis C virus genotype 4 is highly prevalent in central Africa (Gabon)". J Gen Virol. 75 (9): 2393–2398. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-75-9-2393.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  88. ^ Oni AO, Harrison TJ (1996). "Genotypes of hepatitis C virus in Nigeria". J Med Virol. 49 (3): 178–186. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199607)49:3<178::AID-JMV4>3.0.CO;2-1. PMID 8818962.
  89. ^ Cantaloube JF, Gallian P, Bokilo A, Jordier F, Biagini P, Attoui H, Chiaroni J, de Micco P (2010). "Analysis of hepatitis C virus strains circulating in Republic of the Congo". J Med Virol. 82 (4): 562–567. doi:10.1002/jmv.21724. PMID 20166180.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  90. ^ Gededzha MP, Selabe SG, Kyaw T, Rakgole JN, Blackard JT, Mphahlele MJ (2012). "Introduction of new subtypes and variants of hepatitis C virus genotype 4 in South Africa". J Med Virol. 84 (4): 601–607. doi:10.1002/jmv.23215. PMID 22337299.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  91. ^ Mudawi HM, Smith HM, Fletcher IA, Fedail SS (2007). "Prevalence and common genotypes of HCV infection in Sudanese patients with hepatosplenic schistosomiasis". J Med Virol. 79 (9): 1322–1324. doi:10.1002/jmv.20865. PMID 17607776.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  92. ^ Rapicetta M, Argentini C, Dettori S, Spada E, Pellizzer G, Gandin C (1998). "Molecular heterogeneity and new subtypes of HCV genotype 4". Res Virol. 149 (5): 293–297. doi:10.1016/S0923-2516(99)89008-6. PMID 9879607.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  93. ^ Biggar RJ, Ortiz-Conde BA, Bagni RK, Bakaki PM, Wang CD, Engels EA, Mbulaiteye SM, Ndugwa CM (2006). "Hepatitis C virus genotype 4 in Ugandan children and their mothers". Emerg Infect Dis. 12 (9): 1440–1443. doi:10.3201/eid1209.041068. PMC 3294722. PMID 17073099.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  94. ^ Njouom R, Frost E, Deslandes S, Mamadou-Yaya F, Labbé AC, Pouillot R, Mbélesso P, Mbadingai S, Rousset D; et al. (2009). "Predominance of hepatitis C virus genotype 4 infection and rapid transmission between 1935 and 1965 in the Central African Republic". J Gen Virol. 90 (10): 2452–2456. doi:10.1099/vir.0.011981-0. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  95. ^ Njouom R, Pasquier C, Ayouba A, Gessain A, Froment A, Mfoupouendoun J, Pouillot R, Dubois M, Sandres-Sauné K; et al. (2003). "High rate of hepatitis C virus infection and predominance of genotype 4 among elderly inhabitants of a remote village of the rain forest of South Cameroon". J Med Virol. 71 (2): 219–225. doi:10.1002/jmv.10473. PMID 12938196. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  96. ^ Elasifer HA, Agnnyia YM, Al-Alagi BA, Daw MA (2010). "Epidemiological manifestations of hepatitis C virus genotypes and its association with potential risk factors among Libyan patients". Virol J. 7: 317. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-317. PMID 21073743.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  97. ^ أ ب Haushofer AC, Kopty C, Hauer R, Brunner H, Halbmayer WM (2001). "HCV genotypes and age distribution in patients of Vienna and surrounding areas". J Clin Virol. 20 (1–2): 41–47. doi:10.1016/S1386-6532(00)00154-2. PMID 11163582.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  98. ^ Olinger CM, Lazouskaya NV, Eremin VF, Muller CP (2008). "Multiple genotypes and subtypes of hepatitis B and C viruses in Belarus: similarities with Russia and western European influences". Clin Microbiol Infect. 14 (6): 575–581. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.01988.x. PMID 18373690.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  99. ^ Matheï C, Wollants E, Verbeeck J, Van Ranst M, Robaeys G, Van Damme P, Buntinx F (2005). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C among drug users in Flanders, Belgium: association of genotype with clinical parameters and with sex- and drug-related risk behaviours". Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 24 (8): 514–522. doi:10.1007/s10096-005-1376-9. PMID 16133411.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  100. ^ أ ب Demetriou VL, de Vijver DA, Network Cyprus HCV, Kostrikis LG (2009). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C infection in Cyprus: evidence of polyphyletic infection". J Med Virol. 81 (2): 238–248. doi:10.1002/jmv.21370. PMID 19107977.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  101. ^ Eriksen MB, Jørgensen LB, Krarup H, Laursen AL, Christensen PB, Møller A, Schlichting P, Kuiken C, Bukh J; et al. (2010). "Molecular and epidemiological profiles of hepatitis C virus genotype 4 in Denmark". J Med Virol. 82 (11): 1869–1877. doi:10.1002/jmv.21896. PMID 20872713. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  102. ^ Nicot F, Legrand-Abravanel F, Sandres-Saune K, Boulestin A, Dubois M, Alric L, Vinel JP, Pasquier C, Izopet J; et al. (2008). "Heterogeneity of hepatitis C virus genotype 4 strains circulating in south-western France". J Gen Virol. 86 (1): 107–114. doi:10.1099/vir.0.80409-0. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  103. ^ Katsoulidou A, Sypsa V, Tassopoulos NC, Boletis J, Karafoulidou A, Ketikoglou I, Tsantoulas D, Vafiadi I, Hatzis G; et al. (2006). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in Greece: temporal trends in HCV genotype-specific incidence and molecular characterization of genotype 4 isolates". J Viral Hepat. 13 (1): 19–27. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2893.2005.00649.x. PMID 16364078. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  104. ^ Ansaldi F, Bruzzone B, Salmaso S, Rota MC, Durando P, Gasparini R, Icardi G (2005). "Different seroprevalence and molecular epidemiology patterns of hepatitis C virus infection in Italy". J Med Virol. 76 (3): 327–332. doi:10.1002/jmv.20376. PMID 15902713.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  105. ^ Sereno S, Perinelli P, Laghi V (2009). "Changes in the prevalence of hepatitis C virus genotype among Italian injection drug users-relation to period of injection started". J Clin Virol. 45 (4): 354–357. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2009.04.022. PMID 19497783.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  106. ^ Calado RA, Rocha MR, Parreira R, Piedade J, Venenno T, Esteves A (2011). "Hepatitis C virus subtypes circulating among intravenous drug users in Lisbon, Portugal". J Med Virol. 83 (4): 608–615. doi:10.1002/jmv.21955. PMID 21328374.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  107. ^ de Bruijne J, Schinkel J, Prins M, Koekkoek SM, Aronson SJ, van Ballegooijen MW, Reesink HW, Molenkamp R, de Laar TJ; et al. (2009). "Emergence of hepatitis C virus genotype 4: phylogenetic analysis reveals three distinct epidemiological profiles". J Clin Microbiol. 47 (12): 3832–3838. doi:10.1128/JCM.01146-09. PMC 2786681. PMID 19794040. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  108. ^ Pizzillo P, Almasio PL, Ferraro D, Craxì A, Di Stefano R (2009). "HCV genotypes in Sicily: is there any evidence of a shift". J Med Virol. 81 (6): 1040–1046. doi:10.1002/jmv.21498. PMID 19382266.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  109. ^ Franco S, Tural C, Clotet B, Martínez MA (2007). "Complete nucleotide sequence of genotype 4 hepatitis C viruses isolated from patients co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1". Virus Res. 123 (2): 161–169. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2006.09.001. PMID 17023084.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  110. ^ van Asten L, Verhaest I, Lamzira S, Hernandez-Aguado I, Zangerle R, Boufassa F, Rezza G, Broers B, Robertson JR; et al. (2004). "Spread of hepatitis C virus among European injection drug users infected with HIV: a phylogenetic analysis". J Infect Dis. 189 (2): 292–302. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  111. ^ Chlabicz S, Flisiak R, Lapinski TW, Kowalczuk O, Wiercinska-Drapalo A, Pytel-Krolczuk B, Grzeszczuk A, Chyczewski L, Pancewicz J; et al. (2011). "Epidemiological features of patients infected with HCV genotype 4 in Poland: Epidemiology of HCV genotype 4 in Poland". Hepat Mon. 11 (3): 191–194. PMC 3206688. PMID 22087142. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  112. ^ Cifuentes C, Mira JA, Vargas J, Neukam K, Escassi C, García-Rey S, Gilabert I, González-Monclova M, Bernal S, Pineda JA (2012) Prevalence of hepatitis virus infection markers in HIV-infected patients in Southern Spain. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin
  113. ^ أ ب ت Murphy DG, Willems B, Deschênes M, Hilzenrat N, Mousseau R, Sabbah S (2007). "Use of sequence analysis of the NS5B region for routine genotyping of hepatitis C virus with reference to C/E1 and 5' untranslated region sequences". J Clin Microbiol. 45 (4): 1102–1112. doi:10.1128/JCM.02366-06. PMC 1865836. PMID 17287328. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "Murphy2007" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  114. ^ أ ب ت Martial J, Morice Y, Abel S, Cabié A, Rat C, Lombard F, Edouard A, Pierre-Louis S, Garsaud P; et al. (2004). "Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes in the Caribbean island of Martinique: evidence for a large radiation of HCV-2 and for a recent introduction from Europe of HCV-4". J Clin Microbiol. 42 (2): 784–791. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.2.784-791.2004. PMC 344442. PMID 14766854. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  115. ^ Zein NN, Rakela J, Krawitt EL, Reddy KR, Tominaga T, Persing DH (1996). "Hepatitis C virus genotypes in the United States: epidemiology, pathogenicity, and response to interferon therapy. Collaborative Study Group". Ann. Intern. Med. 125 (8): 634–9. PMID 8849147. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  116. ^ Sulbarán MZ, Di Lello FA, Sulbarán Y, Cosson C, Loureiro CL, Rangel HR, Cantaloube JF, Campos RH, Moratorio G; et al. (2010). "Genetic history of hepatitis C virus in Venezuela: high diversity and long time of evolution of HCV genotype 2". PLoS ONE. 5 (12): e14315. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014315. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  117. ^ Zali MR, Mayumi M, Raoufi M, Nowroozi A (2000). "Hepatitis C virus genotypes in the Islamic Republic of Iran: a preliminary study". East Mediterr Health J. 6 (2–3): 372–327. PMID 11556026.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  118. ^ Chamberlain RW, Adams NJ, Taylor LA, Simmonds P, Elliott RM (1997). "The complete coding sequence of hepatitis C virus genotype 5a, the predominant genotype in South Africa". Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 236 (1): 44–49. doi:10.1006/bbrc.1997.6902. PMID 9223423.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  119. ^ Verbeeck J, Maes P, Lemey P, Pybus OG, Wollants E, Song E, Nevens F, Fevery J, Delport W; et al. (2006). "Investigating the origin and spread of hepatitis C virus genotype 5a". J Virol. 80 (9): 4220–4226. doi:10.1128/JVI.80.9.4220-4226.2006. PMC 1472033. PMID 16611881. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. ^ Abreha T, Woldeamanuel Y, Pietsch C, Maier M, Asrat D, Abebe A, Hailegiorgis B, Aseffa A, Liebert UG; et al. (2011). "Genotypes and viral load of hepatitis C virus among persons attending a voluntary counseling and testing center in Ethiopia". J Med Virol. 83 (5): 776–782. doi:10.1002/jmv.21788. PMID 21351106. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  121. ^ Henquell C, Cartau C, Abergel A, Laurichesse H, Regagnon C, De Champs C, Bailly JL, Peigue-Lafeuille H (2004). "High prevalence of hepatitis C virus type 5 in central France evidenced by a prospective study from 1996 to 2002". J Clin Microbiol. 42 (7): 3030–3035. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.7.3030-3035.2004. PMC 446309. PMID 15243055.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  122. ^ أ ب Mauss S, Berger F, Vogel M, Pfeiffer-Vornkahl H, Alshuth U, Rockstroh JK, Niederau C, Hüppe D (2012) Treatment results of chronic hepatitis C genotype 5 and 6 infections in Germany. Z Gastroenterol 50(5):441-444
  123. ^ Vardas E, Sitas F, Seidel K, Casteling A, Sim J (1999). "Prevalence of hepatitis C virus antibodies and genotypes in asymptomatic, first-time blood donors in Namibia". Bull World Health Organ. 77 (12): 965–972. PMC 2557776. PMID 10680243.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  124. ^ أ ب Attaullah S, Khan S, Ali I (2011). "Hepatitis C virus genotypes in Pakistan: a systemic review". Virol J. 8: 433.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  125. ^ Osoba AO (2002). "Hepatitis C virus genotypes in Saudi Arabia". Saudi Med J. 23 (1): 7–12. PMID 11938356.
  126. ^ Jover R, Pérez-Serra J, de Vera F, Alamo JM, Muñoz C, Yago C, Martínez-Ramírez R, Vidal JV (2001). "Infection by genotype 5a of HCV in a district of southeast Spain". Am J Gastroenterol. 96 (10): 3042–3043. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.04695.x. PMID 11693355.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  127. ^ Antaki N, Haddad M, Kebbewar K, Abdelwahab J, Hamed O, Aaraj R, Alhaj N, Haffar S, Assil M; et al. (2009). "The unexpected discovery of a focus of hepatitis C virus genotype 5 in a Syrian province". Epidemiol Infect. 137 (1): 79–184. doi:10.1017/S095026880800054X. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  128. ^ Anonymous (1997). "Hepatitis C". Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 72 (10): 65–69. PMID 9115857.
  129. ^ Akkarathamrongsin S, Praianantathavorn K, Hacharoen N, Theamboonlers A, Tangkijvanich P, Poovorawan Y (2011). "Seroprevalence and genotype of hepatitis C virus among immigrant workers from Cambodia and Myanmar in Thailand". Intervirology. 54 (1): 10–16. doi:10.1159/000318884. PMID 20689311.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  130. ^ Yan Z, Fan K, Wang Y, Fan Y, Tan Z, Deng G (2012). "Changing pattern of clinical epidemiology on hepatitis C virus infection in southwest china". Hepat Mon. 12 (3): 196–204. doi:10.5812/hepatmon.857. PMC 3339420. PMID 22550528.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  131. ^ أ ب Tokita H, Okamoto H, Iizuka H, Kishimoto J, Tsuda F, Lesmana LA, Miyakawa Y, Mayumi M (1996). "Hepatitis C virus variants from Jakarta, Indonesia classifiable into novel genotypes in the second (2e and 2f), tenth (10a) and eleventh (11a) genetic groups". J Gen Virol. 77 (2): 293–301. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-77-2-293. PMID 8627233.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  132. ^ Hübschen JM, Jutavijittum P, Thammavong T, Samountry B, Yousukh A, Toriyama K, Sausy A, Muller CP (2011). "High genetic diversity including potential new subtypes of hepatitis C virus genotype 6 in Lao People's Democratic Republic". Clin Microbiol Infect. 17 (12): E30–4. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03665.x. PMID 21958219.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  133. ^ Lwin AA, Shinji T, Khin M, Win N, Obika M, Okada S, Koide N (2007). "Hepatitis C virus genotype distribution in Myanmar: Predominance of genotype 6 and existence of new genotype 6 subtype". Hepatol Res. 37 (5): 337–345. doi:10.1111/j.1872-034X.2007.00053.x. PMID 17441806.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  134. ^ Apichartpiyakul C, Apichartpiyakul N, Urwijitaroon Y, Gray J, Natpratan C, Katayama Y, Fujii M, Hotta H (1999). "Seroprevalence and subtype distribution of hepatitis C virus among blood donors and intravenous drug users in northern/northeastern Thailand". Jpn J Infect Dis. 52 (3): 121–123. PMID 10507992.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  135. ^ Noppornpanth S, Lien TX, Poovorawan Y, Smits SL, Osterhaus AD, Haagmans BL (2006). "Identification of a naturally occurring recombinant genotype 2/6 hepatitis C virus". J Virol. 80 (15): 7569–7577. doi:10.1128/JVI.00312-06. PMC 1563718. PMID 16840336.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  136. ^ Kaba S, Dutta U, Byth K, Crewe EB, Khan MH, Coverdale SA, Lin R, Liddle C, Farrell GC; et al. (1998). "Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C in Australia". J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 13 (9): 914–920. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.1998.tb00761.x. PMID 9794190. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  137. ^ Tezcan S, Ulger M, Aslan G, Yaraş S, Altıntaş E, Sezgin O, Emekdaş G, Gürer Giray B, Sungur MA (2013) Determination of hepatitis C virus genotype distribution in Mersin province, Turkey. Mikrobiyol Bul 47(2):332-328
تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=تفشي_ڤيروس_التهاب_الكبد_الوبائي_سي&oldid=2232227"