أدرينوكروم

هذا المقال هو عن the chemical compound. إذا كنت تريد the conspiracy theory about Satanic child sacrifice، انظر QAnon.
Adrenochrome
Structural formula of adrenochrome
Ball-and-stick model of the adrenochrome molecule
الأسماء
اسم أيوپاك
3-Hydroxy-1-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-indole-5,6-dione
أسماء أخرى
Adraxone; Pink adrenaline
Identifiers
رقم CAS
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.176 Edit this at Wikidata
رقم EC
UNII
InChI InChI={{{value}}}
SMILES
الخصائص
الصيغة الجزيئية C9H9NO3
كتلة مولية 179.16 g mol-1
المظهر deep-violet[1]
الكثافة 3.264 g/cm3
نقطة الغليان
ما لم يُذكر غير ذلك، البيانات المعطاة للمواد في حالاتهم العيارية (عند 25 °س [77 °ف]، 100 kPa).
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مراجع الجدول

Adrenochrome is a chemical compound produced by the oxidation of adrenaline (epinephrine). It was the subject of limited research from the 1950s through to the 1970s as a potential cause of schizophrenia. While it has no current medical application, the related derivative compound, carbazochrome, is a hemostatic medication. Despite this compound's name, it is unrelated to the element chromium; instead, the ‑chrome suffix indicates a relationship to color, as pure adrenochrome is deep violet.[1]

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الكيمياء

The oxidation reaction that converts adrenaline into adrenochrome occurs both in vivo and in vitro. Silver oxide (Ag2O) was among the first reagents employed for this,[2] but a variety of other oxidising agents have been used successfully.[3] In solution, adrenochrome is pink and further oxidation of the compound causes it to polymerize into brown or black melanin compounds.[4]


التاريخ

أمبولة أدرينوكروم

Several small-scale studies (involving 15 or fewer test subjects) conducted in the 1950s and 1960s reported that adrenochrome triggered psychotic reactions such as thought disorder and derealization.[5]

In 1954, researchers Abram Hoffer and Humphry Osmond claimed that adrenochrome is a neurotoxic, psychotomimetic substance and may play a role in schizophrenia and other mental illnesses.[6]

In what Hoffer called the "adrenochrome hypothesis",[7] he and Osmond in 1967 speculated that megadoses of vitamin C and niacin could cure schizophrenia by reducing brain adrenochrome.[8][9]

The treatment of schizophrenia with such potent anti-oxidants is highly contested. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association reported methodological flaws in Hoffer's work on niacin as a schizophrenia treatment and referred to follow-up studies that did not confirm any benefits of the treatment.[10] Multiple additional studies in the United States,[11] Canada,[12] and Australia[13] similarly failed to find benefits of megavitamin therapy to treat schizophrenia.

The adrenochrome theory of schizophrenia waned, despite some evidence that it may be psychotomimetic, as adrenochrome was not detectable in people with schizophrenia.[بحاجة لمصدر]

In the early 2000s, interest was renewed by the discovery that adrenochrome may be produced normally as an intermediate in the formation of neuromelanin.[5] This finding may be significant because adrenochrome is detoxified at least partially by glutathione-S-transferase. Some studies have found genetic defects in the gene for this enzyme.[14]

Adrenochrome is also believed to have cardiotoxic properties.[15][16]

في الثقافة الشعبية

  • In his 1954 book The Doors of Perception, Aldous Huxley mentioned the discovery and the alleged effects of adrenochrome which he likened to the symptoms of mescaline intoxication, although he had never consumed it.[17]
  • Anthony Burgess mentions adrenochrome as "drencrom" at the beginning of his 1962 novel A Clockwork Orange. The protagonist and his friends are drinking drug-laced milk: "They had no license for selling liquor, but there was no law yet against prodding some of the new veshches which they used to put into the old moloko, so you could peet it with vellocet or synthemesc or drencrom or one or two other veshches [...]"[17]
  • Hunter S. Thompson mentioned adrenochrome in his 1971 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.[18] This is the likely origin of current myths surrounding this compound, because a character states that "There's only one source for this stuff ... the adrenaline glands from a living human body. It's no good if you get it out of a corpse." The adrenochrome scene also appears in the novel's film adaptation.[17] In the DVD commentary, director Terry Gilliam admits that his and Thompson's portrayal is a fictional exaggeration. Gilliam insists that the drug is entirely fictional and seems unaware of the existence of a substance with the same name. Hunter S. Thompson also mentions adrenochrome in his book Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. In the footnotes in chapter April, page 140, he says: "It was sometime after midnight in a ratty hotel room and my memory of the conversation is hazy, due to massive ingestion of booze, fatback, and forty cc's of adrenochrome."
  • Adrenochrome is a component of several far right conspiracy theories, such as QAnon and Pizzagate,[19][20][21] with the chemical helping the theories play a similar role to earlier blood libel and Satanic ritual abuse stories.[22] According to QAnon, which has incorporated and expanded Pizzagate's claims about child sex abuse rings, a cabal of Satanists rapes and murders children, using the adrenochrome they "harvest" from their victims' blood as a drug[23][24] or as an elixir of youth.[25] In reality, adrenochrome is synthesized, solely for research purposes, by biotechnology companies.[26][27][28]

المراجع

  1. ^ أ ب Heacock, R. A.; Nerenberg, C.; Payza, A. N. (1 مايو 1958). "The Chemistry of the "Aminochromes": Part I. The Preparation and Paper Chromatography of Pure Adrenochrome". Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 36 (5): 853–857. doi:10.1139/v58-124.
  2. ^ Veer, W. L. C. (1942). "Melanin and its precursors II. On adrenochrome". Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas. 61 (9): 638–646. doi:10.1002/recl.19420610904.
  3. ^ Heacock, R. A. (1 أبريل 1959). "The Chemistry Of Adrenochrome And Related Compounds" (PDF). Chemical Reviews. 59 (2): 181–237. doi:10.1021/cr50026a001.
  4. ^ A. Hoffer; H. Osmond (22 أكتوبر 2013). The Hallucinogens. Elsevier. pp. 272–273. ISBN 978-1-4832-6169-0.
  5. ^ أ ب Smythies J (مارس 2002). "The adrenochrome hypothesis of schizophrenia revisited". Neurotoxicity Research. 4 (2): 147–150. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.688.3796. doi:10.1080/10298420290015827. PMID 12829415. S2CID 37594882.
  6. ^ Hoffer A, Osmond H, Smithies J (يناير 1954). "Schizophrenia; a new approach. II. Result of a year's research". The Journal of Mental Science. 100 (418): 29–45. doi:10.1192/bjp.100.418.29. PMID 13152519.
  7. ^ Hoffer A (1999). "The Adrenochrome Hypothesis and Psychiatry". The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. 14 (1): 49–62.
  8. ^ Hoffer A, Osmond H (1967). The Hallucinogens. Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-4832-6169-0.
  9. ^ Hoffer A (1994). "Schizophrenia: An Evolutionary Defense Against Severe Stress" (PDF). Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. 9 (4): 205–2221.
  10. ^ Lipton MA, Ban TA, Kane FJ, Levine J, Mosher LR, Wittenborn R (1973). "Task Force Report on Megavitamin and Orthomolecular Therapy in Psychiatry" (PDF). American Psychiatric Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 فبراير 2021. Retrieved 7 سبتمبر 2020.
  11. ^ Wittenborn JR, Weber ES, Brown M (1973). "Niacin in the Long-Term Treatment of Schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry. 28 (3): 308–315. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750330010002. PMID 4569673.
  12. ^ Ban TA, Lehmann HE (1970). "Nicotinic Acid in the Treatment of Schizophrenia: A Summary Report". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1 (3): 5–7. doi:10.1093/schbul/1.3.5.
  13. ^ Vaughan K, McConaghy N (1999). "Megavitamin and dietary treatment in schizophrenia: a randomised, controlled trial". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 33 (1): 84–88. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.1999.00527.x. PMID 10197889. S2CID 38857700.
  14. ^ Smythies J (2004). Smythies J (ed.). Disorders of Synaptic Plasticity and Schizophrenia (1st ed.). Elsevier Academic Press. pp. xv. ISBN 978-0-12-366860-8.
  15. ^ Bindoli, Alberto; Rigobello, Maria Pia; Galzigna, Lauro (يوليو 1989). "Toxicity of aminochromes". Toxicology Letters. 48 (1): 3–20. doi:10.1016/0378-4274(89)90180-X.
  16. ^ Behonick, George S.; Novak, Mark J.; Nealley, Eric W.; Baskin, Steven I. (ديسمبر 2001). "Toxicology update: the cardiotoxicity of the oxidative stress metabolites of catecholamines (aminochromes)". Journal of Applied Toxicology. 21 (S1): S15–S22. doi:10.1002/jat.793.
  17. ^ أ ب ت Adams J (7 أبريل 2020). "The truth about adrenochrome". The Spinoff. Retrieved 28 يونيو 2020.
  18. ^ Friedberg, Brian. "The Dark Virality of a Hollywood Blood-Harvesting Conspiracy". Wired. Retrieved 21 فبراير 2021.
  19. ^ "Fear and adrenochrome". Spectator USA (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). 4 مايو 2020. Archived from the original on 20 سبتمبر 2020. Retrieved 23 مايو 2020.
  20. ^ "How Facebook connects 'pizzagate' conspiracy theorists". NBC News (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 23 مايو 2020.
  21. ^ Dunning, Brian (20 أكتوبر 2020). "Skeptoid #750: How to Extract Adrenochrome from Children". Skeptoid. Retrieved 20 أكتوبر 2020.
  22. ^ Kantrowitz, Lia (29 سبتمبر 2020). "QAnon, Blood Libel, and the Satanic Panic". The New Republic. Retrieved 8 مايو 2021.
  23. ^ Friedberg, Brian (31 يوليو 2020). "The Dark Virality of a Hollywood Blood-Harvesting Conspiracy". Wired. Retrieved 16 فبراير 2022.
  24. ^ Hitt, Tarpley (14 أغسطس 2020). "How QAnon Became Obsessed With 'Adrenochrome,' an Imaginary Drug Hollywood Is 'Harvesting' from Kids". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 27 يناير 2021.
  25. ^ "QAnon: A Glossary". Anti-Defamation League. 21 يناير 2021. Retrieved 15 فبراير 2022.
  26. ^ Walker-Journey, Jennifer (14 أبريل 2021). "Untangling the Medical Misinformation Around Adrenochrome" (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). HowStuffWorks. Archived from the original on 14 أبريل 2021. Retrieved 25 أكتوبر 2022.
  27. ^ Schayer, Richard W. (1952). "Synthesis of dl-Adrenalin-β-C14 and dl-Adrenochrome-β-C14". Journal of the American Chemical Society (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). ACS Publications. 74 (9): 2441. doi:10.1021/ja01129a531. Archived from the original on 25 أكتوبر 2022. Retrieved 25 أكتوبر 2022.
  28. ^ "Method of synthesizing adrenochrome monoaminoguanidine" (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Google Patents. 1965. Archived from the original on 16 أكتوبر 2021. Retrieved 25 أكتوبر 2022.

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