ظربان

For other uses, see ظربان (توضيح).
يجب ألا يـُخلـَط بينها وبين Polecat.

Skunks
Striped skunks
Striped skunks
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
أصنوفة غير معروفة (أصلحها): Mephitidae
Groups included

Conepatus
Mephitis
Spilogale
†Brachyprotoma

Skunk genera ranges
Skunk genera ranges

الظربان Skunk هي ثدييات العالم الجديد في عائلة Mephitidae. بينما يرتبط الظربان بpolecat وأفراد آخرين من عائلة ابن عرس، فإن أقرب أقاربهم في العالم القديم هم الغرير ذو الرائحة الكريهة.[1] تشتهر الحيوانات بقدرتها على رش سائل برائحة كريهة قوية. تختلف الأنواع المختلفة من الظربان في المظهر من الأسود والأبيض إلى البني أو الكريمي أو الزنجبيل ، ولكن جميعها لها تلوين تحذيري.

While related to polecats and other members of the weasel family, skunks have as their closest relatives the Old World stink badgers.[2]

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Taxonomy

المقالة الرئيسية: List of mephitids

In alphabetical order, the living species of skunks are:[3]

A hooded skunk skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology


Terminology

The word skunk is dated from the 1630s, adapted from a southern New England Algonquian language (probably Abenaki) seganku, from Proto-Algonquian *šeka:kwa, from *šek- 'to urinate' + *-a:kw 'fox'.[4] Skunk has historic use as an insult, attested from 1841.[5]

In 1634, a skunk was described in The Jesuit Relations:

The other is a low animal, about the size of a little dog or cat. I mention it here, not on account of its excellence, but to make of it a symbol of sin. I have seen three or four of them. It has black fur, quite beautiful and shining; and has upon its back two perfectly white stripes, which join near the neck and tail, making an oval that adds greatly to their grace. The tail is bushy and well furnished with hair, like the tail of a Fox; it carries it curled back like that of a Squirrel. It is more white than black; and, at the first glance, you would say, especially when it walks, that it ought to be called Jupiter's little dog. But it is so stinking and casts so foul an odor, that it is unworthy of being called the dog of Pluto. No sewer ever smelled so bad. I would not have believed it if I had not smelled it myself. Your heart almost fails you when you approach the animal; two have been killed in our court, and several days afterward there was such a dreadful odor throughout our house that we could not endure it. I believe the sin smelled by Saint Catherine de Sienne must have had the same vile odor.[6][أ]

In Southern United States dialect, the term polecat is sometimes used as a colloquial nickname for a skunk,[8] even though polecats are only distantly related to skunks.

As a verb, skunk is used to describe the act of overwhelmingly defeating an opponent in a game or competition. Skunk is also used to refer to certain strong-smelling strains of Cannabis whose smell has been compared to that of a skunk's spray.

Description

Skunk species vary in size from about 15.6 to 37 in (40 to 94 cm) long and in weight from about 1.1 lb (0.50 kg) (spotted skunks) to 18 lb (8.2 kg) (hog-nosed skunks). They have moderately elongated bodies with relatively short, well-muscled legs and long front claws for digging. They have five toes on each foot.

Back left foot of an albino skunk

Although the most common fur color is black and white, some skunks are brown or grey and a few are cream-colored. All skunks are striped, even from birth. They may have a single thick stripe across the back and tail, two thinner stripes, or a series of white spots and broken stripes (in the case of the spotted skunk).

Behavior

A skunk in Ontario, Canada

Skunks are crepuscular and solitary animals when not breeding, though in the colder parts of their range, they may gather in communal dens for warmth. During the day they shelter in burrows, which they can dig with their powerful front claws. For most of the year the normal home range for skunks is 0.5 to 2 miles (1 to 3 km) in diameter, with males expanding during breeding season to travel 4 to 5 miles (6 to 8 km) per night.[9]

Skunks are not true hibernators in the winter, but do den up for extended periods of time. However, they remain generally inactive and feed rarely, going through a dormant stage.[10] Over winter, multiple females (as many as 12) huddle together; males often den alone. Often, the same winter den is repeatedly used.

Although they have excellent senses of smell and hearing, they have poor vision, being unable to see objects more than about 3 m (10 ft) away, making them vulnerable to death by road traffic. They are short-lived; their lifespan in the wild can reach seven years, with an average of six years.[11][12] In captivity, they may live for up to 10 years.[11][12]

Reproduction

Skunks mate in early spring and are polygynous (that is, successful males are uninhibited from mating with additional females).

Before giving birth (usually in May), the female excavates a den to house her litter of four to seven kits.

Skunks are placental, with a gestation period of about 66 days.[13]

When born, skunk kits are blind and deaf, but already covered by a soft layer of fur. About three weeks after birth, they first open their eyes; the kits are weaned about two months after birth. They generally stay with their mother until they are ready to mate, roughly at one year of age.

The mother is protective of her kits, spraying at any sign of danger. The male plays no part in raising the young.[14]

Female skunk with young

Diet

Skunks are omnivorous, eating both plant and animal material and changing their diets as the seasons change. They eat insects, larvae, earthworms, grubs, rodents, lizards, salamanders, frogs, snakes, birds, moles, and eggs. They also commonly eat berries, roots, leaves, grasses, fungi and nuts.

In settled areas, skunks also seek garbage left by humans. Less often, skunks may be found acting as scavengers, eating bird and rodent carcasses left by cats or other animals. Pet owners, particularly those of cats, may experience a skunk finding its way into a garage or basement where pet food is kept. Skunks commonly dig holes in lawns in search of grubs and worms.

Skunks use their long claws to break apart rotting logs to find insects that live within them. They also use those claws to help dig for insects, which leaves behind pits, which are easy signs of foraging. The claws also help with pinning down live and active prey. [15]

Skunks are one of the primary predators of the honeybee, relying on their thick fur to protect them from stings. The skunk scratches at the front of the beehive and eats the guard bees that come out to investigate.[16] Mother skunks are known to teach this behavior to their young.

Spray

Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) in a defensive posture with erect and puffed tail, indicating its readiness to spray.

Skunks are notorious for their anal scent glands, which they can use as a defensive weapon. They are similar to, though much more developed than, the glands found in species of the family Mustelidae. Skunks have two glands, one on each side of the anus. These glands produce the skunk's spray, which is a mixture of sulfur-containing chemicals such as thiols (traditionally called mercaptans), which have an offensive odor. The thiols also make their spray highly flammable.[17][18] A skunk's spray is powerful enough to ward off bears and other potential attackers.[19] Muscles located next to the scent glands allow them to spray with a high degree of accuracy, as far as 3 m (10 ft).[20] The spray can also cause irritation and even temporary blindness, and is sufficiently powerful to be detected by a human nose up to 5.6 km (3.5 miles) downwind.[21] Their chemical defense is effective, as illustrated by this extract from Charles Darwin's 1839 book The Voyage of the Beagle:

We saw also a couple of Zorrillos, or skunks—odious animals, which are far from uncommon. In general appearance, the Zorrillo resembles a polecat, but it is rather larger and much thicker in proportion. Conscious of its power, it roams by day about the open plain and fears neither dog nor man. If a dog is urged to the attack, its courage is instantly checked by a few drops of the fetid oil, which brings on violent sickness and running at the nose. Whatever is once polluted by it, is forever useless. Azara says the smell can be perceived at a league distance; more than once, when entering the harbour of Monte Video, the wind being offshore, we have perceived the odour onboard the Beagle. Certain it is, that every animal most willingly makes room for the Zorrillo.[22]

Skunks carry just enough for five or six successive sprays – about 15 cm3 – and require up to ten days to produce another supply.[23] Their bold black and white coloration makes their appearance memorable. It is to a skunk's advantage to warn possible predators off without expending scent: black and white aposematic warning coloration aside, threatened skunks will go through an elaborate routine of hisses, foot-stamping, and tail-high deimatic or threat postures before resorting to spraying. Skunks usually do not spray other skunks, except among males in the mating season. If they fight over den space in autumn, they do so with teeth and claws.[24]

Most predators of the Americas, such as wolves, foxes, and badgers, seldom attack skunks, presumably out of fear of being sprayed. The exceptions are reckless predators whose attacks fail once they are sprayed, dogs, and the great horned owl,[25] which is the skunk's only regular predator.[26] In one case, the remains of 57 striped skunks were found in a single great horned owl nest.[27]

Skunks are common in suburban areas. Frequent encounters with dogs and other domestic animals, and the release of the odor when a skunk is run over, have led to many misconceptions about the removal of skunk odor, including the pervasive idea that tomato juice will neutralize the odor. These household remedies are ineffective, and only appear to work due to olfactory fatigue.[28] In 1993,[29] American chemist Paul Krebaum developed a compound that chemically neutralizes skunk spray by changing the odor-causing thiols into odorless acids. This compound can be prepared as a mixture of: 1 quart of 3% hydrogen peroxide, ¼ cup of baking soda, and 1-2 teaspoons of liquid dish soap.[30] The Humane Society of the United States recommends treating dogs using the Krebaum mixture.[31]

Skunk spray is composed mainly of three low-molecular-weight thiol compounds, (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol, as well as acetate thioesters of these.[32][33][34][35][36][37] These compounds are detectable by the human nose at concentrations of only 11.3 parts per billion.[38][39]

SkunkMuskChem.svg


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Relations with humans

Bites

It is rare for a healthy skunk to bite a human, though a tame skunk whose scent glands have been removed (usually on behalf of those who will keep it as a pet) may defend itself by biting. There are, however, few recorded incidents of skunks biting humans. Skunk bites in humans can result in infection with the rabies virus. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recorded 1,494 cases of rabies in skunks in the United States for the year 2006—about 21.5% of reported cases in all species.[40][41] Skunks in fact are less prominent than raccoons as vectors of rabies. (However, this varies regionally in the United States, with raccoons dominating along the Atlantic coast and the eastern Gulf of Mexico, while skunks instead predominate throughout the Midwest, including the western Gulf, and in California.)

As pets

المقالة الرئيسية: Skunks as pets
A tame striped skunk

Mephitis mephitis, the striped skunk, is the most social skunk and the one most commonly kept as a pet. In the US, skunks can legally be kept as pets in 17 states.[42] When a skunk is kept as a pet, its scent glands are often surgically removed.[42]

A pet albino skunk on a walk

In the UK, skunks can be kept as pets,[43] but the Animal Welfare Act 2006 made it illegal to remove their scent glands.[44]


الجوانب الثقافية

علم أصل الكلمة

The word "skunk" is dated from the 1630s, adapted from a southern New England Algonquian language (probably Abenaki) seganku, from Proto-Algonquian */šeka:kwa/, from */šek-/ 'to urinate' + */-a:kw/ 'fox'.[45]

عامية

الظربان له استخدام تاريخي كإهانة، يشهد منذ عام 1841.[46] تم استخدام المصطلح أيضًا لوصف فعل هزيمة الخصم بأغلبية ساحقة في لعبة أو منافسة، لا سيما عن طريق منع الخصم المذكور من التسجيل على الإطلاق.

تستخدم كلمة الظربان أيضًا للإشارة إلى سلالات معينة من الماريجوانا ذات الرائحة القوية والتي تمت مقارنة رائحتها برائحة رذاذ الظربان.

في لهجة الولايات المتحدة الجنوبية ، يستخدم المصطلح polecat أحيانًا كلقب عامي للظربان، [47] على الرغم من أن polecats لا ترتبط إلا بعيدًا بالظربان.


تاريخ الوعي الأوروبي

في عام 1634 ، تم وصف الظربان في العلاقات اليسوعية:

الآخر هو حيوان منخفض ، بحجم كلب أو قطة صغيرة. أذكرها هنا ، ليس من أجل تميزها ، ولكن لأجعلها رمزًا للخطيئة. لقد رأيت ثلاثة أو أربعة منهم. لها فراء أسود ، جميل جدًا ولامع ؛ وعلى ظهره خطان أبيضان تمامًا ، يلتقيان بالقرب من العنق والذيل ، مما يجعل شكلًا بيضاويًا يضيف إلى جمالها بشكل كبير. الذيل كثيف ومفروش جيدًا بالشعر ، مثل ذيل الثعلب ؛ يحمله إلى الخلف مثل السنجاب. إنه أبيض أكثر من أسود ؛ وللوهلة الأولى ، ستقول ، خاصةً عندما يمشي ، إنه يجب أن يُطلق عليه اسم كلب المشتري الصغير. لكنه كريه الرائحة وينبعث منه رائحة كريهة لدرجة أنه لا يستحق أن يطلق عليه اسم كلب بلوتو. لا يوجد نظام صرف صحي رائحته سيئة للغاية. لم أكن لأصدق ذلك لو لم أشم رائحته بنفسي. يكاد قلبك يخذلك عندما تقترب من الحيوان ؛ قُتل اثنان في محكمتنا ، وبعد عدة أيام كانت هناك رائحة كريهة في جميع أنحاء منزلنا لدرجة أننا لم نتمكن من تحملها. أعتقد أن خطيئة سانت كاترين دي سيين لابد أن لها نفس الرائحة الكريهة.[48]


علم الأحياء

الوصف المادي

تختلف أنواع الظربان في الحجم من حوالي 15.6 إلى 37 بوصة (40 إلى 94 سم م) ووزنها من حوالي 1.1 رطل (0.50 كيلو جرام) (الظربان المرقطة) إلى 18 رطل (8.2 كيلو جرام) (الظربان ذات الأنف الخنازير). لديهم أجساد مستطيلة بشكل معتدل مع أرجل قصيرة نسبيًا وعضلات جيدة ومخالب أمامية طويلة للحفر. لديهم خمسة أصابع في كل قدم.


back left foot of an albino skunk

على الرغم من أن لون الفراء الأكثر شيوعًا هو الأسود والأبيض ، إلا أن بعض الظربان بني أو رمادي وبعضها ذو لون كريمي. جميع الظربان مخططة ، حتى منذ الولادة. قد يكون لديهم شريط سميك واحد عبر الظهر والذيل ، أو خطين أرق ، أو سلسلة من البقع البيضاء والخطوط المكسورة (في حالة الظربان المرقط).

النظام الغذائي

الظربان آكلة اللحوم، تأكل كل من المواد النباتية والحيوانية وتغير نظامها الغذائي مع تغير الفصول. يأكلون الحشرات ، واليرقات، وديدان الأرض، وخنفساء ، والقوارض، والسحالي ، والسلمندر، والضفادع، والثعابين، والطيور، و حيوانات الخلد ، و البيض. كما أنهم عادة يأكلون التوت و الجذر و الأوراق والأعشاب والفطريات و المكسرات.

في المناطق المستقرة ، تبحث الظربان أيضًا عن القمامة التي تركها البشر. في كثير من الأحيان ، يمكن العثور على الظربان تعمل على أنها آكله للجيف ، وتأكل جثث الطيور و القوارض التي خلفتها القطط أو الحيوانات الأخرى. قد يواجه أصحاب الحيوانات الأليفة ، وخاصة القطط ، ظربانًا يجد طريقه إلى المرآب أو الطابق السفلي حيث يتم حفظ طعام الحيوانات الأليفة. عادة ما تحفر الظربان ثقوبًا في المروج بحثًا عن اليرقات والديدان.

الظربان هي أحد الحيوانات المفترسة الأساسية للنحل، وتعتمد على فرائها السميك لحمايتها من اللسعات. يخدش الظربان في مقدمة خلية النحل ويأكل النحل الحارس الذي يخرج للتحقيق. من المعروف أن الظربان الأم تعلم هذا السلوك لصغارها. وفي كاليفورنيا أيضًا ، تقوم الظربان بحفر أعشاش الدبابير الصفراء (الدبابير الصغيرة) في الصيف ، بعد جفاف التربة المتماسكة تحت أشجار البلوط وفتح الشقوق ، مما يسمح للسترات الصفراء ببناء أعشاشها تحت الأرض.[بحاجة لمصدر]


السلوك

A skunk in Ontario, Canada

الظربان حيوانات شفقية وحيدة ومنعزلة عندما لا تتكاثر ، على الرغم من أنها في الأجزاء الباردة من مداها ، قد تتجمع في أوكار مشتركة للدفء. خلال النهار يحتمون في الجحور ، والتي يمكنهم حفرها بمخالبهم الأمامية القوية. يحتل الذكور والإناث نطاقات متداخلة من المنزل خلال الجزء الأكبر من العام ، عادةً من 2 إلى 4 كيلو م 2 (0.77 إلى 1.54 ميل 2) للإناث وحتى 20 كيلو م 2 (7.7 ميل 2) للذكور.

الظربان ليسوا سباتًا حقيقيًا في الشتاء ، لكنهم يفعلون ذلك لفترات طويلة من الزمن. ومع ذلك ، فإنها تظل خاملة بشكل عام ونادراً ما تتغذى ، تمر بمرحلة نائمة. خلال فصل الشتاء ، تتجمع عدة إناث (ما يصل إلى 12) معًا ؛ غالبًا ما يعكر الذكور بمفردهم. في كثير من الأحيان ، يتم استخدام نفس عرين الشتاء بشكل متكرر.

على الرغم من أن لديهم حاسة شم وسمع ممتازة ، إلا أنهم يعانون من ضعف في الرؤية ، وعدم قدرتهم على رؤية الأشياء التي تبعد مسافة تزيد عن 3 أمتار (10 قدم) ، مما يجعلهم عرضة للموت بسبب حركة المرور على الطرق. هم قصير الأجل. يمكن أن يصل عمرها في البرية إلى سبع سنوات ، ويعيش معظمهم حتى عام واحد فقط.[11][12] في الأسر ، قد يعيشون لمدة تصل إلى 10 سنوات.[11][12]


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الاستنساخ

تتزاوج الظربان في أوائل الربيع وهي تعدد الزوجات (أي أن الذكور الناجحين لا يمنعون من التزاوج مع إناث إضافية.)

قبل الولادة (عادة في شهر مايو) ، تقوم الأنثى بحفر عرين لإيواء فضلاتها المكونة من أربع إلى سبع مجموعات.

الظربان مشيمية ، وتبلغ فترة حملها حوالي 66 يومًا.[49]

عند ولادتها ، تكون مجموعات الظربان عمياء وصماء ولكنها مغطاة بالفعل بطبقة ناعمة من الفراء. بعد حوالي ثلاثة أسابيع من الولادة ، يفتحون عيونهم أولاً ؛ يتم فطام الأطفال بعد حوالي شهرين من الولادة. يبقون عمومًا مع والدتهم حتى يصبحوا مستعدين للتزاوج ، في عمر عام تقريبًا.

الأم تحمي مجموعاتها ، وترشها في أي علامة خطر. ولا يلعب الذكر دورًا في تربية الصغار.[50]


رش

Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) in a defensive posture with erect and puffed tail, indicating that it may be about to spray.

تشتهر الظربان بغدد الرائحة الشرجية ، والتي يمكنهم استخدامها كسلاح دفاعي. إنها تشبه الغدد الموجودة في أنواع عائلة ابن عرس، على الرغم من أنها أكثر تطورًا بكثير. للظربان غدتان ، واحدة على جانبي فتحة الشرج. تنتج هذه الغدد رذاذ الظربان ، وهو خليط من المواد الكيميائية المحتوية على الكبريت مثل الثيول (تسمى تقليديًا مركابتان) ، والتي لها رائحة كريهة. رذاذ الظربان قوي بما يكفي لصد الدببة والمهاجمين المحتملين الآخرين.[51] العضلات المتوضعة بجانب غدد الرائحة تسمح لها بالرش بدرجة عالية من الدقة تصل إلى 3 م (10 قدم). يمكن أن يتسبب الرذاذ أيضًا في حدوث تهيج وحتى عمى مؤقت ، وهو قوي بما يكفي لاكتشافه بواسطة أنف بشري يصل إلى 5.6 كيلومتر (3.5 ميل) في اتجاه الريح.[بحاجة لمصدر] دفاعهم الكيميائي فعال ، كما هو موضح في هذا المستخلص من تشارلز داروين رحلة البيجل:

لقد رأينا أيضًا اثنين من Zorrillos ، أو الظربان - حيوانات بغيضة ، وهي بعيدة كل البعد عن كونها غير شائعة. في المظهر العام ، يشبه Zorrillo عصا البولكات ، لكنه أكبر حجمًا وأكثر سمكًا في التناسب. وإدراكًا لقوتها ، تتجول نهارًا في السهل المفتوح ولا تخشى الكلب ولا الإنسان. إذا تم حث الكلب على الهجوم ، يتم فحص شجاعته على الفور عن طريق بضع قطرات من الزيت النتن ، مما يؤدي إلى مرض عنيف وسيلان الأنف. كل ما كان ملوثًا به ، فهو عديم الفائدة إلى الأبد. يقول Azara أن الرائحة يمكن رؤيتها من مسافة بعيدة ؛ أكثر من مرة ، عند دخول ميناء Monte Video ، كانت الرياح بعيدة عن الشاطئ ، لقد لاحظنا الرائحة على متن Beagle. من المؤكد أن كل حيوان يفسح المجال عن طيب خاطر لـ Zorrillo.[52]

Skunks carry just enough of the chemical for five or six successive sprays – about 15 cm3 – and require up to ten days to produce another supply.[53] Their bold black and white coloration makes their appearance memorable. It is to a skunk's advantage to warn possible predators off without expending scent: black and white aposematic warning coloration aside, threatened skunks will go through an elaborate routine of hisses, foot-stamping, and tail-high deimatic or threat postures before resorting to spraying. Skunks usually do not spray other skunks, except among males in the mating season. If they fight over den space in autumn, they do so with teeth and claws.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Most predators of the Americas, such as wolves, foxes, and badgers, seldom attack skunks, presumably out of fear of being sprayed. The exceptions are reckless predators whose attacks fail once they are sprayed, dogs, and the great horned owl,[54] which is the skunk's only regular predator.[26] In one case, the remains of 57 striped skunks were found in a single great horned owl nest.[27]

Skunks are common in suburban areas. Frequent encounters with dogs and other domestic animals, and the release of the odor when a skunk is run over, have led to many myths about the removal of skunk odor. Due to the chemical composition of the spray, most of these household remedies are ineffective.[55] The Humane Society of the United States recommends treating dogs using a mixture of dilute hydrogen peroxide (3%), baking soda, and dishwashing liquid.[56]

Skunk spray is composed mainly of three low-molecular-weight thiol compounds, (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol, as well as acetate thioesters of these.[57][58][59][60][61] These compounds are detectable by the human nose at concentrations of only 11.3 parts per billion.[62][63]

SkunkMuskChem.svg

العلاقات مع البشر

Bites

It is rare for a healthy skunk to bite a human; while a tame skunk whose scent glands have been removed (usually on behalf of those who will keep it as a pet) may defend itself by biting; there are however few recorded incidents, the most prevalent circumstance of skunk-bites of humans being infection with rabies virus (reflecting the virus's "evolutionary strategy" of, in effect, promoting its spread via the so-called mad-dog syndrome). The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recorded 1,494 cases of rabies in skunks in the United States for the year 2006—about 21.5% of reported cases in all species.[64][65] Skunks in fact are less prominent than raccoons as vectors of rabies. (However, this varies regionally in the United States, with raccoons dominating along the Atlantic coast and the eastern Gulf of Mexico, while skunks instead predominate throughout the Midwest, including the western Gulf, and in California.)

كحيوانات أليفة

المقالة الرئيسية: Skunks as pets
A tame striped skunk

Mephitis mephitis, the striped skunk, is the most social skunk and the one most commonly kept as a pet. In the US, skunks can legally be kept as pets in 17 states.[42] When a skunk is kept as a pet, its scent glands are often surgically removed.[42]

A pet Albino skunk on a walk

In the UK, skunks can be kept as pets,[66] but the Animal Welfare Act 2006 made it illegal to remove their scent glands.[67]

تصنيف

المقالة الرئيسية: List of mephitids

In alphabetical order, the living species of skunks are:[68]

A hooded skunk skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology

أنظر أيضاً

المصادر

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  3. ^ Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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  64. ^ Blanton J.D.; Hanlon C.A.; Rupprecht C.E. (2007). "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2006". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 231 (4): 540–56. doi:10.2460/javma.231.4.540. PMID 17696853.; Updated in Dyer JL, Yager P, Orciari L, Greenberg L, Wallace R, Hanlon CA, Blanton JD (2014). "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2013". J Am Vet Med Assoc. 245 (10): 1111–23. doi:10.2460/javma.245.10.1111. PMC 5120391. PMID 25356711.
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وصلات خارجية

معرفة المصادر بها نص من the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica مقالة Skunk.


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