دخن

الدخن Millet واحد من النباتات التي تنتج حبوباً صغيرة تصلح للأكل. وتنمو حبوب الدخن جيدًا في التربة الرملية الجافة، وتعد حبوبها مصدرًا غذائيًا مهمًا في الأقاليم الجافة في آسيا وأفريقيا. يطحن سكان هذه المناطق حبوب الدخن للحصول على الطحين اللازم لصناعة الأرغفة المبطّطة والكعك الرفيع المقلي أو العصيدة. وتستخدم حبوب الدخن وأوراقه وسيقانه غذاء للماشية في بعض البلدان.
Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa, especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger, with 97% of production in developing countries.[1] The crop is favoured for its productivity and short growing season under hot dry conditions. The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivated sorghum; apart from that, pearl millet is the most commonly cultivated of the millets.[2] Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are other important crop species. Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".[3]
التاريخ
كان الدخن المحصول الرئيسي في أوروبا وأجزاء من آسيا في العصور القديمة والوسطى، ولكنه لم يصلح لعمل الخبز المخمر، ولهذا فقد مكانته وحل محله القمح وغيره من الحبوب. وتتصدر الصين والهند وروسيا قائمة الدول المنتجة للدخن في الوقت الحالي.

الوصف
السمات
Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals.[4]
Finger millet in the field
Ripe head of proso millet
Sprouting millet plants
تاريخ التبويب
In 1753, Carl Linnaeus described foxtail millet as Panicum italicum. In 1812, Palisot de Beauvois grouped several taxa into Setaria italica.[5]
The genus Pennisetum was divided by Otto Stapf in 1934 into the section penicillaria, with 32 species including all the cultivated ones, and four other sections. In 1977, J. Brunken and colleagues classed the wild P. violaceum as part of the cultivated species P. glaucum (pearl millet).[5]
Finger millet was described as Eleusine coracana by Joseph Gaertner in 1788.[6]
التطور
النسالة
The millets are closely related to sorghum and maize within the PACMAD clade of grasses,[7] and more distantly to the cereals of the BOP clade such as wheat and barley.[8]
(Part of Poaceae) |
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Within the Panicoideae, sorghum is in the tribe andropoganeae, while pearl millet, proso, foxtail, fonio, little millet, sawa, Japanese barnyard millet and kodo are in the tribe paniceae.[9][10] Within the Chloridoideae, finger millet is in the tribe chlorideae, while teff is in the tribe aragrosteae.[9]
التبويب
The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the family Poaceae (the grasses), but they belong to different tribes and subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:[11]
Eragrostideae tribe in the subfamily Chloridoideae:
- Eleusine coracana: Finger millet
- Eragrostis tef: Teff; often not considered to be a millet[12]
Paniceae tribe in the subfamily Panicoideae:
- جنس Panicum:
- Panicum miliaceum: Proso millet (common millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, or white millet, also known as baragu in Kannada, panivaragu in Tamil)
- Panicum sumatrense: Little millet
- Panicum hirticaule: Sonoran millet, cultivated in the American Southwest
- Cenchrus americanus: Pearl millet
- Setaria italica: Foxtail millet, Italian millet, panic[13]
- Genus Digitaria: of minor importance as crops[12]
- Digitaria exilis: known as white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice
- Digitaria iburua: Black fonio
- Digitaria compacta: Raishan, cultivated in the Khasi Hills of northeast India
- Digitaria sanguinalis: Polish millet
- Genus Echinochloa: collectively, the members of this genus are called barnyard grasses or barnyard millets
- Echinochloa esculenta: Japanese barnyard millet
- Echinochloa frumentacea: Indian barnyard millet
- Echinochloa stagnina: Burgu millet
- Echinochloa crus-galli: Common barnyard grass (or cockspur grass)
- Paspalum scrobiculatum: Kodo millet
- Genus Urochloa (formerly Brachiaria)
- Urochloa deflexa: Guinea millet
- Urochloa ramosa: Browntop millet[14]
- Spodiopogon formosanus: Taiwan oil millet, endemic to Taiwan[15]
Andropogoneae tribe, also in the subfamily Panicoideae:
- Sorghum bicolor: Sorghum; usually considered a separate cereal, but sometimes known as great millet
- Coix lacryma-jobi: Job's tears, also known as adlay millet[12]
التوطين والانتشار
Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea.[16]
The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought,[17] and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.[18] Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BC.[18]
Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BC, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece.[19] Hesiod describes that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."[20][21] Millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BC by Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants.[22]
شرق آسيا
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.[17] Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago.[17] Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at the Lajia archaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.[23][24]
Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BC).[25][26] Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea.[26] Millets and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period sometime after 4000 BC.[27][25]
Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, a legendary Emperor of China, and Hou Ji, whose name means Lord Millet.[28]
شبه القارة الهندية
Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 BC in Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) around 3700 BC, also in Indian subcontinent.[29][30] Various millets have been mentioned in some of the Yajurveda texts, identifying foxtail millet (priyaṅgu), Barnyard millet (aṇu) and black finger millet (śyāmāka), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BC in India.[31] Upon request by the Indian Government in 2018, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations declared 2023 as International Year of Millets.[32]
غرب أفريقيا
يُدجن دخن اللؤلؤ في منطقة الساحل غرب القارة الأفريقية من الثيوم الأفريقي.[33] تشمل الأدلة الأثرية المبكرة في أفريقيا اكتشافات في كينتامپو في شمال غانا (1740 ق.م.) ودار تيشيت في موريتانيا (1936-1683 ق.م.) ووادي تيلمسي السفلي في مالي (2500-2000 ق.م.).[33][34] تشير دراسات الإيزوزيمات إلى أن التدجين حدث شمال شرق نهر السنغال في أقصى غرب الساحل الأفريقي وبشكل مبدئي حوالي عام 6000 ق.م.[33][34] وصل دخن اللؤلؤ شبه القارة الهندية حوالي عام 2000 ق.م.[34]
شرق أفريقيا
يعود أصل دخن الإصبع إلى مرتفعات شرق أفريقيا وتم تدجينه قبل الألفية الثالثة ق.م. وانتشرت زراعته إلى جنوب الهند بحلول عام 1800 ق.م.[35]
أنواع الدخن

يوجد حوالي عشرة أنواع من الدخن. ويصل طول معظمها إلى ما بين 0,3 و 1,2م. وتنمو الحبوب في عناقيد تسمى سنابل على قمة الساق. ينضج الدخن بسرعة، ولذلك فإنه يزرع أحيانًا كمحصول طوارئ بعد فشل المحصول السابق عليه. وهناك أنواع كثيرة يمكن أن تنمو في أجواء أشد حرارة وجفافًا، وفي تربة أقل خصوبة من تلك التي تحتملها معظم البذور الأخرى. تشتمل أنواع الدخن على دخن اللؤلؤ ودخن ذيل الثعلب والدخن مبكر النضج. ويُعَدُّ دخن اللؤلؤ الغذاء الرئيسي لكثير من شعوب الهند وإفريقيا. ويزرعه الفلاحون في بلدان مثل الولايات المتحدة أساسًا كعلف للماشية. ويبلغ طول سيقان دخن اللؤلؤ 4,5م، وتبدو سنابله أشبه بقرن طويل رفيع ولهذا فإنه يعرف أيضًا باسم دخن الشمعة أو دخن ذيل الهرة.
أما دخن ذيل الثعلب، الذي يعرف باسم الدخن الإيطالي أو دخن القش، فتتم زراعته باعتباره محصولاً غذائيًا في الصين وقزاقستان وروسيا وأوكرانيا. ويزرع بعض الفلاحين دخن ذيل الثعلب أساسًا للحصول على التبن، إلى جانب استخدام الحبوب للأكل وإطعام الطيور. وعادة ما يتراوح طول ساق دخن الثعلب ما بين 0,8 و1,5م. أما الدخن مبكر النضج، فيشكل عنصرًا رئيسيًا من غذاء الكثير من الآسيويين، وتؤكل الحبوب بقشورها بعد طهوها، وكثيرًا ما تستخدم الزهور النابتة من حبوب الدخن كبديل لطحين الأرز. ويستخدم هذا الدخن غذاء للماشية والطيور. وهو يحتوي على قيمة غذائية عالية تضاهي قيمة الذرة الشامية تقريبًا بالنسبة للماشية، غير أن حبوب الدخن مبكر النضج بالغة الصلابة، ولذلك ينبغي طحنها طحنًا ناعمًا جدًا قبل تقديمها للماشية. يتراوح طول الساق ما بين 0,3 و 0,6م، وهي خشنة مغطاة بالشعر، تصلح قشاً رديء النوعية.
الزراعة
زراعة الشتل
Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia.[36] Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops.[36]
Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in Burkina Faso, doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials in Zimbabwe. From there it was taken to Namibia, where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Sahelian country where pearl millet—locally known as mahangu—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to Chad. The breed has significantly enhanced yields in Mauritania and Benin.[37]
الآفات والأمراض
Millets are subject to damage by many insect pests, including corn borers, stem borers, the caterpillars of numerous moths in the families Erebidae and Noctuidae, the millet midge, many species of flies in the Muscidae, Hemipteran bugs of many families including aphids, and species of thrips, beetles, and grasshoppers.[38]
Among the many diseases of millets are serious fungal infections such as anthracnose, blast, charcoal rot, downy mildew, ergot, grain mould, rust, and sheath rot. Bacterial diseases are generally less serious; they include bacterial leaf spot, leaf stripe and leaf streak. Viral diseases are again generally less serious, except for a few diseases such as maize stripe virus, maize mosaic virus, sorghum red stripe virus, and maize streak virus.[39]
الانتاج
أكبر منتجي الدخن | |
---|---|
في 2022 | |
العدد بالمليون طن | |
1. ![]() | 11٫8 (38٫19%) |
2. ![]() | 3٫7 (11٫97%) |
3. ![]() | 2٫7 (8٫74%) |
4. ![]() | 1٫9 (6٫15%) |
5. ![]() | 1٫8 (5٫83%) |
6. ![]() | 1٫7 (5٫5%) |
7. ![]() | 1٫2 (3٫88%) |
8. ![]() | 1٫1 (3٫56%) |
9. ![]() | 0٫9 (2٫91%) |
10. ![]() | 0٫7 (2٫27%) |
الإجمالي العالمي | 30.9 |
المصدر: FAOSTAT[40] |
عام 2022، بلغ الإنتاج العالمي من الدخن 30.9 مليون طن. تعد الهند أكبر منتج للدخن في العالم، حيث تُزرع 11.8 مليون طن سنوياً - حوالي 38% من الإجمالي العالمي ويزيد بثلاثة أضعاف عن أقرب منافس لها. تقع ثماني من الدول التسع المتبقية من أكبر عشر منتجين عالميين للدخن في إفريقيا، بدءاً من النيجر (3.7 مليون طن) إلى تشاد (0.7 مليون طن)؛ والاستثناء الوحيد هو الصين، التي تحتل المرتبة الثالثة في الإنتاج العالمي، بواقع 2.7 مليون طن.[40]
امرأة تدرس دخن اللؤلؤ في شمال غانا.
دخن پروسو مصاب بمرض الخطوط البكتيري.
الأبحاث
تُجرى الأبحاث على الدخن من قبل المعهد الدولي لبحوث المحاصيل في المناطق الاستوائية شبه القاحلة (ICRISAT)[41][42][43] والمعهد الهندي لأبحاث الدخن (ICAR)[44] في ولاية تلنگانة الهندية، ومن قبل هيئة الأبحاث الزراعية التابعة لوزارة الزراعة الأمريكية في تيفون بولاية جورجيا.[45]
الاستخدامات
كغذاء
في أوكرانيا، كان الدخن تاريخياً مكوناً شائعاً في النظام الغذائي القوزاق الزاپوروج|لقوزاق الزاپوروج]]، على شكل عصيدة تسمى "قوليش". هذا الطبق، المصنوع في المقام الأول من الدخن، والذي يُقدم مع الخضار المطهية واللحوم، مطبوخاً في مرجل، يظل جزءاً من المطبخ الأوكراني الحديث.[46] في ألمانيا، يؤكل حلواً، على سبيل المثال مع الحليب والتوت في وجبة الإفطار.[47]
الدخن هو المكون الرئيسي في بانه دا كي، وهي وجبة خفيفة حلوة ڤيتنامية. تحتوي على طبقة من الدخن المهروس والفاصوليا الخضراء مغطاة بشرائح من جوز الهند المجفف ملفوفة في كعكة أرز مقرمشة.[48] في أجزاء من أفريقيا يُخلط الدخن مع الحليب لصنع مشروب البوركينة.[49]
يُستخدم دخن الإصبع في صنع خبز راگي روتي المسطح[50] وقطع عجين راگي موت في كرناتكا.[51] تؤكل قطع العجين كفورنا في منطقة الساحل الأفريقي غرب القارة.[52]
كخمر
في الهيمالايا، بما في ذلك نيپال سكم ودارجيلنگ، يُخمر الدخن ويُحول إلى مشروب كحولي يسمى تونگپا.[53]
في الهند، تُنتج المشروبات الكحولية من الدخن، بما في ذلك الراكشي.[54]
كعلف
يُستخدم الدخن أحياناً كمحصول علفي. وبالمقارنة بالذرة الرفيعة العلفية، تكتسب الحيوانات بما في ذلك الحملان وزناً أسرع بتغذيتها على الدخن، كما يتمتع بإمكانات أفضل للتبن أو التخزين، على الرغم من أنه ينتج مادة جافة أقل.[55] لا يحتوي الدخن على حمض الپروسيك السام، والذي يوجد أحياناً في الذرة الرفيعة.[56] يسمح النمو السريع للدخن كمحصول للرعي بالمرونة في استخدامه. يمكن للمزارعين الانتظار حتى تتوفر رطوبة كافية في أواخر الربيع/الصيف ثم الاستفادة منه. وهو مناسب بشكل مثالي للري حيث يلزم اكتمال تربية الماشية.[55][56][57]
الاستهلاك البشري
Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa.[58] In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso, Chad and the Gambia. In Mali and Senegal, millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in Niger and arid Namibia it is over 65 percent (see mahangu). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea.[12]
People affected by gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers,[59][60][61] who need a gluten-free diet, can replace gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet.[62] There remains a risk of contamination with gluten-containing cereals.[63][64]
القيمة الغذائية
يوضح الجدول محتوى العناصر الغذائية في حبوب أنواع مختلفة من الدخن الخام مقارنة بالمحاصيل الأساسية الأخرى.
المحصول | پروتين (ج) |
ألياف (ج) |
المعادن (ج) |
حديد (مج) |
كالسيوم (مج) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
الذرة البيضاء | 10 | 4 | 1.6 | 2.6 | 54 |
دخن اللؤلؤ | 10.6 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 16.9 | 38 |
دخن الإصبع | 7.3 | 3.6 | 2.7 | 3.9 | 344 |
دخن ذيل الثعلب | 12.3 | 8 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 31 |
دخن پروسو | 12.5 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 0.8 | 14 |
دخن كودو | 8.3 | 9 | 2.6 | 0.5 | 27 |
الدخن الصغير | 7.7 | 7.6 | 1.5 | 9.3 | 17 |
دخن ياباني | 11.2 | 10.1 | 4.4 | 15.2 | 11 |
دخن بني | 11.5 | 12.5 | 4.2 | 0.65 | 0.01 |
كينوا | 14.1 | 7 | * | 4.6 | 47 |
تف | 13 | 8 | 0.85 | 7.6 | 180 |
فونيو | 11 | 11.3 | 5.31 | 84.8 | 18 |
أرز | 6.8 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 10 |
قمح | 11.8 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 5.3 | 41 |
انظر أيضاً
المصادر
فهرس
- Crawford, Gary W. (1983). Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. ISBN 0932206956.
- Crawford, Gary W. (1992). "Prehistoric Plant Domestication in East Asia". In Cowan C.W., Watson P.J (ed.). The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 117–132. ISBN 0874749905.
- Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee (2003). "Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula". Antiquity. 77 (295): 87–95.
وصلات خارجية

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- ^ "Eleusine coracana (finger millet)". CABI. Retrieved 3 January 2025.
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- ^ أ ب Soreng, Robert J.; Peterson, Paul M.; Zuloaga, Fernando O.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; Clark, Lynn G.; et al. (2022). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) III: An update". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 60 (3): 476–521. doi:10.1111/jse.12847.
- ^ Morrone, Osvaldo; Aagesen, Lone; Scataglini, Maria A.; Salariato, Diego L.; Denham, Silvia S.; et al. (2012). "Phylogeny of the Paniceae (Poaceae: Panicoideae): integrating plastid DNA sequences and morphology into a new classification". Cladistics. 28 (4): 333–356. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00384.x.
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- ^ "panic". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. قالب:OEDsub from classical Latin pānicum (or pānīcum) Italian millet.
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