أزرق المايا

Maya blue
Maya blue
	A warrior with Maya blue on the background
Color coordinates
Hex triplet	#73C2FB
sRGBB (r, g, b)	(115, 194, 251)
HSV (h, s, v)	(205°, 54%, 98%)
CIELChuv (L, C, h)	(76, 66, 238°)
المصدر	www.colorhexa.com/73c2fb
ISCC–NBS descriptor	Light blue
	B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte);

قالب:Expand Spanish

Maya blue (إسپانية: azul maya) is a unique bright azure blue pigment manufactured by cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, such as the Mayans and Aztecs, during a period extending from approximately the 8th century to around 1860 CE. It is found in mural paintings on architectural buildings, ceramic pieces, sculptures, codices, and even in post-conquest Indochristian artworks and mural decorations.^[1] ^[2] ^[3]

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Manufacture

The Maya blue pigment is a composite of organic and inorganic constituents, primarily indigo dyes derived from the leaves of anil (Indigofera suffruticosa) plants combined with palygorskite, a natural clay and type of fuller's earth which is most common in the Southern United States, but is not known to exist in abundant deposits in Mesoamerica.^[4] Smaller trace amounts of other mineral additives have also been identified.^[5]

Historical use

Maya blue first appeared around 800, and it was still used in the 16th century in several Convents of Colonial Mexico, notably in the paintings of the indigenous Nahua painter Juan Gerson in Tecamachalco. These paintings are a clear example of the combination of indigenous and European techniques sometimes known as Arte Indocristiano. After that, the techniques for its production were lost in Mexico, but in Cuba there are examples from as late as 1830.^[6]

Resistance to weathering

Despite time and the harsh weathering conditions, paintings coloured by Maya blue have not faded over time. The color has resisted chemical solvents and acids such as nitric acid. Its resistance against chemical aggression (acids, alkalis, solvents, etc.) and biodegradation was tested, and it was shown that Maya blue is an extremely resistant pigment, but it can be destroyed using very intense acid treatment under reflux.^[7]

Because of its exceptionally durable colour properties, Maya Blue is an iconic system that led to paleo-inspired chemistry, i.e. the recreation of new pigments such as Maya Violet which exploits the molecular structure of Maya Blue towards new pigment combinations.

Research on chemical composition

Mexican Colonial Painting by Juan Gerson where Maya blue was used: The technique disappeared in the early colonial period.

Microscopic image of a mural at Bonampak

Microscopic image of a mural at Teotihuacan

The chemical composition of the compound was determined by powder diffraction in the 1950s^[8] and was found to be a composite of palygorskite and indigo, most likely derived from the leaves of the añil. An actual recipe to reproduce Maya blue pigment was published in 1993 by a Mexican historian and chemist, Constantino Reyes-Valerio. The combination of different clays (palygorskite and montmorillonite), together with the use of the leaves of the añil and the actual process is described in his paper.^[9] Reyes-Valerio's contributions were possibly due to his combined background of history and chemistry, through a thorough revision of primary texts (Sahagún, Hernandez, Jimenez, and others), microscopic analysis of the mural paintings and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.

After the formula for the production was published in the book De Bonampak al Templo Mayor: Historia del Azul Maya en Mesoamerica, many developments in the chemical analysis of the pigment occurred in collaborations between Reyes-Valerio and European scientists.^[10]

A comprehensive study on the pigment which describes history, the experimental study techniques (diffraction studies, infrared spectroscopies, Raman amplification, optical spectroscopies, voltammetry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and computer modelling), the syntheses, properties and nature of Maya blue and the research in relation with the archaeological and historical contexts has been published in the journal Developments in Clay Science.^[11]

In 2008, researchers from Wheaton College discovered the production of Maya Blue was an integral component of the ancient rituals held at Chichén Itzá. Near a sacred natural sinkhole, indigo and palygorskite were combined through a heating process involving the burning of a mixture that included copal incense, palygorskite, and the leaves of the indigo plant. Subsequently, the individuals involved in the rituals were covered with the blue paint and thrown into the pit to please the rain god Chaak.^[12]

Uses in cultural contexts

Pre-Columbian American culture

In the Americas, Maya blue was used as a colorant in pre-Columbian artworks, sculptures, murals, and textiles (probably), and to illuminate Mesoamerican codices. For example, many illustrations in the Florentine Codex written by Bernardino de Sahagún contain the Maya blue color.^[13]
The use of Maya blue was corroborated in the Grolier Codex, and helped to authenticate the document, now known as Codex Maya of Mexico.
Recent research also suggests Maya blue may have played an important role in human sacrifices to Chaac at Chichén Itzá, both produced at the sacrificial site and used to paint the bodies of the victims.^[14]
Maya blue is associated with the center of a flame. Holding the most heat and therefore the most tonalli, the blue color is considered precious.^[15]

References

^ Reyes–Valerio, Constantino (1993). De Bonampak al Templo Mayor: el azul maya en Mesoamérica. Mexico City: Siglo XXI. ISBN 968-23-1879-3. Retrieved August 2, 2012.
^ Chiari, Giacomo; Giustetto R.; Carson, D. (January–April 2008). "Azul maya: una maravillosa nanotecnología precolombina" (PDF). Boletín de monumentos históricos. Mexico City: National Coordination of Historical Monuments. Third Era (12): 39–. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 15, 2016. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
^ Peltier, Nicolas (2003). "Synthèse et caractérisation d'un complexe organo–argileux: le pigment "Bleu Maya"" (PDF) (in French). Grenoble: European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. Retrieved August 2, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
^ Arnold (2005); Haude (1997).
^ Haude (1997); Reyes-Valerio (1993).
^ Chiari (2000)
^ Sanchez del Rio(2006)
^ Gettens R (1962). "Maya Blue: An Unsolved Problem in Ancient Pigments". American Antiquity. 27 (4): 557–564. doi:10.2307/277679. JSTOR 277679. S2CID 162278485.
^ Reyes-Valerio, De Bonampak al Templo Mayor, La historia del Azul Maya en Mesoamerica, Siglo XXI Editores, 1993.
^ notably, Giaccomo Chiari [1] from the University of Torino, David Ajò from C.N.R. of Padua and Manuel Sanchez del Rio [2] from ESRF [3] in France
^ Sanchez; et al. (2011). "The Maya Blue Pigment". Developments in Clay Science. 3: 453–481. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53607-5.00018-9. ISBN 9780444536075.
^ "Centuries-old Maya Blue Mystery Finally Solved". ScienceDaily (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on Dec 7, 2023. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
^ Magaloni Kerpel, Diana (2014). The Colors of the New World. Los Angeles: The Getty Research Institute. ISBN 9781606063293.
^ Greg Borzo's press release, 26-Feb-2008 [4] (update when the actual study comes out)
^ Magaloni Kerpel, Diane (2014). The Colors of the New World. Los Angeles: The Getty Research Institute. p. 42. ISBN 9781606063293.

Arnold, Dean E. (2005). "Maya Blue and Palygorskite:A second possible pre-Columbian source". Ancient Mesoamerica. 16: 51–62. doi:10.1017/S0956536105050078. S2CID 162864157.
Arnold, Dean E.; Bruce F. Bohor (1975). "Attapulgite and Maya Blue: an Ancient Mine Comes to Light". Archaeology. 28 (1): 23–29.
Chiari, Giaccomo; R. Giustetto; C. Reyes-Valerio; G. Richiardi (2000). "Maya Blue Pigment: A Palygorskite-Indigo complex". XXX Congresso Associazione Italiana di Cristallografia. 48 (1): 115.
Chiari, Giaccomo; R. Giustetto; J. Druzik; E. Doehne; G. Richiardi (2008). "Pre-columbian nanotechnology: reconciling the mysteries of the maya blue pigment". Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing. 90 (1): 3–7. Bibcode:2008ApPhA..90....3C. doi:10.1007/s00339-007-4287-z. S2CID 98656957.
M. Sánchez del Río; P. Martinetto; C. Solís & C. Reyes-Valerio (2006). "PIXE analysis on Maya blue in Prehispanic and colonial mural paintings". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B. 249 (1–2): 628–632. Bibcode:2006NIMPB.249..628S. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2006.03.069.
M. Sanchez del Rio; A. Sodo; S. G. Eeckhout; T. Neisius; P. Martinetto; E. Dooryhée; C. Reyes-Valerio (2005). "Fe K-edge XANES of Maya blue pigment". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B. 238 (1–4): 50–54. Bibcode:2005NIMPB.238...50R. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2005.06.017.
M. Sanchez del Rio; P. Martinetto; A. Somogyi; C. Reyes-Valerio; E. Dooryhée; N. Peltier; L. Alianelli; B. Moignard; L. Pichon; T. Calligaro; J.-C. Dran (2004). "Microanalysis study of archaeological mural samples containing Maya blue pigment". Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy. 59 (10–11): 1619–1625. Bibcode:2004AcSpe..59.1619S. doi:10.1016/j.sab.2004.07.027.
Haude, Mary Elizabeth (1997). "Identification and Classification of Colorants Used During Mexico's Early Colonial Period". The Book and Paper Group Annual. 16. ISSN 0887-8978. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
Reyes-Valerio, Constantino (1993). De Bonampak al Templo Mayor: El azul maya en Mesoamérica (in الإسبانية). Mexico D.F.: Siglo XXI editores. ISBN 968-23-1893-9. Retrieved 2007-03-16.