كارل جوستاف إميل مانرهايم

(تم التحويل من Gustaf Mannerheim)
"Mannerheim" redirects here. For the noble family he belonged to, see Mannerheim (family). For his grandfather, see Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (naturalist). For other uses, see مانرهايم (توضيح).
البارون

كارل گوستاف إميل مانرهايم

مارشال فنلندا
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim.jpg
رئيس فنلندا السادس
في المنصب
4 أغسطس 1944 – 4 مارس 1946
سبقهريستو هايكي ريتي
خلـَفهيوهو كوستي پاسيكيڤي
قائد الدفاع لقوات الدفاع الفنلندية
في المنصب
17 أكتوبر 1939 – 12 يناير 1945
سبقهHugo Viktor Österman
خلـَفهAxel Erik Heinrichs
في المنصب
28 يناير 1918 – 30 مايو 1918
سبقهمنصب مستحدث
خلـَفهKarl Fredrik Wilkman
الوصي على عرش فنلندا
في المنصب
12 ديسمبر 1918 – 26 يوليو 1919
سبقهپر إڤند سڤن‌هوفود
خلـَفهدستور جمهوري جديد
تفاصيل شخصية
وُلِد(1867-06-04)4 يونيو 1867
أسكاينن, فنلندا
توفي27 يناير 1951(1951-01-27) (aged 83)
لوزان، سويسرا
القوميةفنلندي
الزوج
Anastasie Arapova
​
(div. 1919)​
الأنجال
  • Anastasie "Stasie" Mannerheim (1893–1978)
  • Sofia "Sophy" Mannerheim (1895–1963)
الوالدان
الأقارب
المهنةضابط عسكري ورجل دولة
التوقيع
الخدمة العسكرية
الولاء
الفرع/الخدمة
سنوات الخدمة
  • 1887–1917
  • 1918–1946
الرتبة
المعارك/الحروب

البارون كارل گوستاف إميل مانرهايم ( Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim ؛ النطق السويدي: [kɑːɭ ˈɡɵ̂sːtav ˈěːmɪl ˈmânːɛrˌhɛjm], النطق السويدي: [kɑːrl ˈɡʉstɑv ˈeːmil ˈmɑnːærˌhejm] ( استمع) ؛ 4 يونيو 1867 – 27 يناير 1951) كان قائداً عسكرياً، ورجل دولة فنلندي.[2][3] خدم كقائد عسكري في البيض في الحرب الأهلية الفنلندية في 1918، كوصي على فنلندا (1918–19)، وكقائد أعلى لقوة الدفاع الفنلندية أثناء فترة الحرب العالمية الثانية (1939–45)، وكسادس رئيس لفنلندا (1944–46). وقد أصبح الفيلد مارشال الوحيد بفنلندا في 1933 وعـُيـِّن فخرياً مارشال فنلندا، وبالمثل كان الشخص الوحيد الذي شغل هذا المنصب، في 1942.

ساعد في تكوين جمهورية فنلندا عام 1919. وأسس جداراً مسلحاً عبر برزخ كارليا سمي بخط مانرهايم. كما قاد المدافعين الفنلنديين ضد الغزاة الفرنسيين في حرب الشتاء الشهيرة خلال عامي 1939 و1940 وفي الحرب التي استمرت بين عامي 1941م و1944م. تقلد منصب رئيس وزراء فنلندا بين عامي 1944 و1946.

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النشأة والسيرة العسكرية

الأصل

وُلد مانرهايم لعائلة نبيلة هاجرت إلى فنلندا من السويد. وترجع جذور العائلة إلى فنلندا وكانت قد هااجرت إلى السويد في القرن السابع عشر. وكانت ولادته في فلناس بالقرب من تيركو بفنلندا التي أصبحت مستعمرة روسية، وخدم في الجيش الروسي إبان الحرب الروسية اليابانية (1904 ـ 1905)، وفي الحرب العالمية الأولى أيضًا (1914 ـ 1918). غادر روسيا بعد الثورة الشيوعية عام 1917 معارضًا للشيوعيين. ثم تسلم قيادة الجيش الفنلندي عام 1918 بعد إعلان استقلال فنلندا عن روسيا. وأصبح رئيسًا مؤقتًا لفنلندا ثم جاب أطراف أوروبا باحثاً عن الاعتراف والغذاء لشعبه. وفي عام 1919 لم ينجح في أن يكون رئيسًا للدولة.

Russian Empire dominated the Grand Duchy of Finland before 1917, and Mannerheim made a career in the Imperial Russian Army, serving in the Russo-Japanese War and the Eastern Front of World War I and rising by 1917 to the rank of lieutenant general. He had a prominent place in the ceremonies for Emperor Nicholas II's coronation in 1896 and later had several private meetings with the Tsar. After the Bolshevik revolution of November 1917 in Russia, Finland declared its independence (6 December 1917) – but soon became embroiled in the 1918 Finnish Civil War between the pro-Bolshevik "Reds" and the "Whites", who were the troops of the Senate of Finland, supported by troops of the German Empire.

A Finnish delegation appointed Mannerheim as the military chief of the Whites in January 1918, and he led them to victory, holding a triumphal victory parade in Helsinki in May. After spending some time abroad, he was invited back to Finland to serve as the country's second regent, or head of state, from December 1918 to July 1919. He then ran against K. J. Ståhlberg in the first Finnish presidential elections in 1919 but lost and quit politics. Mannerheim helped found the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare in 1920 and headed the Finnish Red Cross from 1922.[4] He offered to serve the French Foreign Legion in the Rif War (1925–26), but was turned down.[5]

Mannerheim was appointed Chairman of the Finnish Defence Council in 1931.[6] After the Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, in what became the Winter War, Mannerheim replaced the president as commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces. He personally participated in the planning of Operation Barbarossa[7] and led the Finnish Defence Forces in an invasion of the USSR alongside Nazi Germany known as the Continuation War (1941–44). In 1944, when the prospect of Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II became clear, the Finnish Parliament appointed Mannerheim as President of Finland, and he oversaw peace negotiations with the Soviet Union and the UK. He resigned the presidency in 1946 and died in 1951.

Participants in a Finnish survey taken 53 years after his death voted Mannerheim the greatest Finn of all time.[8] During his own lifetime he became, alongside Jean Sibelius, the best-known Finnish personage at home and abroad,[3] for whom a cult of personality began to be built right after the civil war.[9] Given the broad recognition in Finland and elsewhere of his unparalleled role in establishing and later preserving Finland's independence from the Soviet Union, Mannerheim has long been referred to as the father of modern Finland,[10][11][12][13][14] and the New York Times has called the Finnish capital Helsinki's Mannerheim Museum memorializing the leader's life and times "the closest thing there is to a [Finnish] national shrine".[12] On the other hand, Mannerheim's personal reputation still strongly divides opinions among people even to this day, with critics highlighting his role as General of the White Guard in the fate of the Red Prisoners during and after the Finnish Civil War, as well as his role in the Siege of Leningrad, a joint campaign with Nazi Germany, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 900,000 to 1,000,000+ civilians, including women and children, and has been deemed a genocide by the Russian government as well as some historians.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21] Mannerheim approved the use of Finnish troops in the Waffen-SS, where some likely committed atrocities against Jews, prisoners of war, and civilians;[22][23] he was also a personal collaborator of Adolf Hitler.[24][25] Mannerheim is the only Finn to have held the rank of field marshal.[26]


الخدمة في الجيش الروسي الإمبراطوري

ملف:Coronation 1896, walking under cover.jpg
بعد تتويجه، Nicholas II of Russia leaves Dormition Cathedral. The Chevalier Guard Lieutenant marching in front to the Tsar's left (to the viewer's right) is Mannerheim.

Mannerheim volunteered for active service with the Imperial Russian Army in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. He was transferred to the 52nd Nezhin Dragoon Regiment in Manchuria, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. During a reconnaissance patrol on the plains of Manchuria, he first saw action in a skirmish and had his horse shot out from under him.[27] He was promoted to Colonel for bravery in the Battle of Mukden in 1905[28] and briefly commanded an irregular unit of Hong Huzi, a local militia, on an exploratory mission into Inner Mongolia.[29] During the war, Mannerheim also managed to lead a group of local thugs and crooks with whom he sought the back of the enemy to defeat them.[30]

Mannerheim, who had a long career in the Imperial Russian army, also rose to become a courtier of Emperor of all the Russias Nicholas II.[30] When Mannerheim returned to St. Petersburg, he was asked to undertake a journey through Turkestan to Beijing as a secret intelligence officer. The Russian General Staff wanted accurate, on-the-ground intelligence about the reforms and activities by the Qing dynasty, as well as the military feasibility of invading Western China: a possible move in their struggle with Britain for control of inner Asia.[31][32] Disguised as an ethnographic collector, he joined the French archeologist Paul Pelliot's expedition at Samarkand in Russian Turkestan (now Uzbekistan). They started from the terminus of the Trans-Caspian Railway in Andijan in July 1906, but Mannerheim quarreled with Pelliot,[31] so he made the greater part of the expedition on his own.[33]

ملف:Horsethatleaps Map1 wikipedia.jpg
Gustaf Mannerheim's route across Asia from St. Petersburg to Peking, 1906–1908.[34]

With a small caravan, including a Cossack guide, Chinese interpreter, and Uyghur cook, Mannerheim first trekked to Khotan in search of British and Japanese spies. After returning to Kashgar, he headed north into the Tian Shan range, surveying passes and gauging the stances of the tribes towards the Han Chinese. Mannerheim arrived in the provincial capital of Urumqi, and then headed east into Gansu province. At the sacred Buddhist mountain of Mount Wutai in Shanxi province, Mannerheim met the 13th Dalai Lama of Tibet. He showed the Dalai Lama how to use a pistol.[35]

He followed the Great Wall of China, and investigated a mysterious tribe known as Yugurs.[36] From Lanzhou, the provincial capital, Mannerheim headed south into Tibetan territory and visited the lamasery of Labrang, where he was stoned by xenophobic monks.[37] During his trip to Tibet in 1908 Mannerheim became the third European who had met with Dalai Lama.[38] Mannerheim arrived in Beijing in July 1908, returning to St. Petersburg via Japan and the Trans-Siberian Express. His report gave a detailed account of Chinese modernization, covering education, military reforms, colonization of ethnic borderlands, mining and industry, railway construction, the influence of Japan, and opium smoking.[37] He also discussed the possibility of a Russian invasion of Xinjiang, and Xinjiang's possible role as a bargaining chip in a putative future war with China.[39] His trip through Asia left him with a lifelong love of Asian art, which he thereafter collected.[35]

After returning to Russia in 1909 from the expedition, Mannerheim presented to his emperor its results of which Nicholas II listened with interest and of which there were many artifacts that are still on display in the museum.[30] After that, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 13th Vladimir Uhlan Regiment in the Congress Kingdom of Poland. The following year, he was promoted to major general and was posted as the commander of the Life Guard Uhlan Regiment of His Imperial Majesty in Warsaw. Next Mannerheim became part of the Imperial entourage and was appointed to command a cavalry brigade.[40]

At the beginning of World War I, Mannerheim served as commander of the Guards Cavalry Brigade, and fought on the Austro-Hungarian and Romanian fronts. In December 1914, after distinguishing himself in combat against the Austro-Hungarian forces, Mannerheim was awarded the Order of St. George, 4th class. In March 1915, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 12th Cavalry Division.[41]

Mannerheim received leave to visit Finland and St. Petersburg in early 1917 and witnessed the outbreak of the February Revolution. After returning to the front, he was promoted to lieutenant general in April 1917 (the promotion was backdated to February 1915), and took command of the 6th Cavalry Corps in the summer of 1917. However, Mannerheim fell out of favour with the new government, who regarded him as not supporting the revolution, and was relieved of his duties. He decided to retire and returned to Finland.[40] Mannerheim kept a large portrait of Emperor Nicholas II in the living room of his house in Helsinki right up to his death, and when asked after the overthrow of the House of Romanov why he kept the portrait up, he always answered: "He was my emperor".[35]

السيرة السياسية

الجنرال الأبيض والوصي على فنلندا

مانرهايم يقود عرض النصر عند نهاية الحرب الأهلية الفنلندية في هلسنكي، 1918.
Mannerheim as Regent (seated), with his adjutants (left) Lt. Col. Lilius, Capt. Kekoni, Lt. Gallen-Kallela, Ensign Rosenbröijer.
انظر أيضاً: Finnish Civil War

في ديسمبر 1917، Finland declared independence from Soviet Russia which was ruled by the Bolsheviks after they overthrew the Provisional Government in the October Revolution. The Soviets accepted the secession for a variety of reasons, mostly because they could not control Finland and also hoping they could inspire a communist revolution there modeled after the Russian one. The Finnish parliament appointed P. E. Svinhufvud to lead the newly independent grand duchy's interregnum government. In January 1918, a military committee was charged with bolstering the Finnish army, then not much more than some locally organised White Guards. Mannerheim was appointed to the committee, but soon resigned to protest its indecision. On 13 January, he was given command of the army.[42] He had only 24,000 newly enlisted, mostly untrained men. The Finnish Red Guard, led by communist leader Kullervo Manner and backed by Soviet Russia, had 30,000 men and there were 70,000 Red Russian troops in Finland. Mannerheim's army was financed by a fifteen million mark line of credit provided by the bankers. His raw recruits had few arms. Nonetheless, he marched them to Vaasa, which was garrisoned by 42,500 Red Russians.[43] He surrounded the Russian garrison with a mass of men; the defenders could not see that only the front rank was armed, so they surrendered, providing badly needed arms. Further weapons were purchased from Germany. Eighty-four Swedish officers and 200 Swedish NCOs served in the Finnish Civil War (or War of Liberty, as it was known among the "Whites"). Other officers were Finns who had been trained by the Germans as a Jäger Battalion. In March 1918 they were aided by German troops landing in Finland and occupying Helsinki.


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فترة ما بين الحربين

ملف:Pyoveli Mannerheim.jpg
"Mannerheim the Executioner" (Pyöveli-Mannerheim); the caricature of Mannerheim from 1940 as part of communism and socialism propaganda is strong evidence of how Mannerheim heavily divided opinions, especially in the aftermath of the Civil War.[44]


محاولة اغتياله 1920

القائد العام

انظر أيضاً: حرب الشتاء, حرب الاستئناف, and حرب لاپلاند
الفيلد مارشال البارون مانرهايم في 1940

When negotiations with the Soviet Union failed in 1939, and aware of the imminent war and deploring the lack of equipment and preparation of the army, Mannerheim resigned once again from the military council on 17 October 1939, declaring that he would agree to return to business only as Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. He officially became the supreme commander of the armies, at the age of 72, after the Soviet attack, the November 30, 1939. In a letter to his daughter Sophie, he stated, "I had not wanted to undertake the responsibility of commander-in-chief, as my age and my health entitled me, but I had to yield to appeals from the President of the Republic and the government, and now for the fourth time I am at war."[45]

He addressed the first of his often controversial orders of the day to the Defence Forces on the day the war began:

The President of the Republic has appointed me on 30 November 1939 as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the country. Brave soldiers of Finland! I enter on this task at a time when our hereditary enemy is once again attacking our country. Confidence in one's commander is the first condition for success. You know me and I know you and know that everyone in the ranks is ready to do his duty even to death. This war is nothing other than the continuation and final act of our War of Independence. We are fighting for our homes, our faith, and our country.[45]

The defensive field fortifications they manned became known as the Mannerheim Line.

Field Marshal Mannerheim quickly organised his headquarters in Mikkeli. His chief of staff was Lieutenant General Aksel Airo, while his close friend, General Rudolf Walden, was sent as a representative of the headquarters to the cabinet from 3 December 1939 until 27 March 1940, after which he became defence minister.[46][47]

Mannerheim spent most of the Winter War and Continuation War in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he remained commander-in-chief.[47] Although Mannerheim's main task was to lead the war, he also knew how to strengthen and maintain the will of the soldiers to fight. He was famed for this quote:

"Forts, cannons and foreign aid will not help unless every man himself knows that he is the guard of his country."[48]

Mannerheim kept relations with Adolf Hitler's government as formal as possible. Mannerheim did not really appreciate Hitler,[49] even though he initially expressed an interest in his rise to power; his mind changed at the point when Mannerheim's visit to Germany made him realize what kind of "ideal state" Hitler was building.[50] Before the Continuation War, the Germans offered Mannerheim command over 80,000 German troops in Finland. Mannerheim declined so as to not tie himself and Finland to Nazi war aims;[51] Mannerheim was ready for cooperation and fraternity with Hitler's Germany, but for practical rather than ideological reasons because of the Soviet threat.[50] In July 1941 the Finnish Army of Karelia was strengthened by the German 163rd Infantry Division. They retook the Finnish territories annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War,[52] and went further, occupying East Karelia. Finnish troops took part in the Siege of Leningrad, which lasted 872 days.


زيارة هتلر لفنلندا

نقاش مع هتلر وريتي. مانرهايم على يسار هتلر (وسط الصورة).


نهاية الحرب ورئاسة قصيرة

مانرهايم يغادر مقر اقامة الرئيس في هلسنكي في 4 مارس 1946 بعد رئاسته القصيرة.


أواخر أيامه

موكب جنازة مانرهايم في هلسنكي Senate Square in 4th February 1951.

After his resignation, Marshal Baron Mannerheim bought Kirkniemi Manor in Lohja, intending to spend his retirement there. In June 1946, he underwent an operation for a perforated peptic ulcer, and in October of that year he was diagnosed with a duodenal ulcer. In early 1947, it was recommended that he should travel to the Valmont Sanatorium in Montreux, Switzerland, to recuperate and write his memoirs. Valmont was to be Mannerheim's main residence for the remainder of his life, although he regularly returned to Finland, and also visited Sweden, France and Italy.[53]

Because Mannerheim was old and sickly, he personally wrote only certain passages of his memoirs. Some other parts he dictated. The remaining parts were written from his recollections by Mannerheim's various assistants, such as Colonel Aladár Paasonen; General Erik Heinrichs; Generals Grandell, Olenius and Martola; and Colonel Viljanen, a war historian. As long as Mannerheim was able to read, he proofread the typewritten drafts of his memoirs. He was almost totally silent about his private life, and focused instead on Finland's history, especially between 1917 and 1944. When Mannerheim suffered a fatal bowel obstruction in January 1951,[54] his memoirs were not yet in their finished form. They were published after his death.[55]

Mannerheim died on 27 January 1951 (28 January Finnish time), in the Cantonal Hospital in Lausanne (فرنسية: L'Hôpital cantonal à Lausanne; modern Lausanne University Hospital[56]), Switzerland. He was buried on 4 February 1951 in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki in a state funeral with full military honours.

الإرث

ملف:Mannerheim-50p-1941.jpg
The 1941 Finnish postal stamp portraying Marshal Mannerheim

Today, Mannerheim retains respect as Finland's greatest statesman. This may be partly due to his refusal to enter partisan politics (although his sympathies were more right-wing than left-wing), his claim always to serve the fatherland without selfish motives, his personal courage in visiting the frontlines, his ability to work diligently into his late seventies, and his foreign political farsightedness in preparing for the Soviet invasion of Finland years before it occurred.[46] Although Finland fought alongside Nazi Germany during the Continuation War and thus in co-operation with the Axis Powers, a surprising number of leaders of the Allies respected Mannerheim. These included, among others, the then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill; at a 2017 conference in London, war historian Terry Charman said it was difficult for Churchill to declare war on Finland at Stalin's demand due to his previous uncomplicated co-operation with Mannerheim, which led Churchill and Mannerheim to exchange polite and apologetic correspondence about the prevailing circumstance, with deep respect for each other.[57]

ملف:Mannerheim hunting house.JPG
The Marshal's Cabin, Mannerheim's hunting lodge

Mannerheim's birthday, 4 June, is celebrated as Flag Day by the Finnish Defence Forces. This decision was made by the Finnish government on the occasion of his 75th birthday in 1942, when he was also granted the title of Marshal of Finland. Flag Day is celebrated with a national parade, and rewards and promotions for members of the defence forces. The life and times of Mannerheim are memorialised in the Mannerheim Museum.[58] The most prominent boulevard in the Finnish capital was renamed Mannerheimintie (Mannerheim Road) already in the Marshal's honour during his lifetime; along the road, at the Kamppi district, stands Hotel Marski, which is named after him. Mannerheim's former hunting lodge and resting place known as the "Marshal's Cabin" (Marskin Maja), which now serves as both a museum and a restaurant, is located at the shores of Lake Punelia in Loppi, Finland.[59]

Various landmarks across Finland honour Mannerheim, including most famously the Equestrian statue located on Helsinki's Mannerheimintie in front of the later-built Kiasma museum of modern art. Mannerheim Parks in both Turku and Seinäjoki include statues of him. Tampere's Mannerheim statue depicting the victorious Civil War general of the Whites was eventually placed in the forest some kilometres outside the city (in part due to lingering controversy over Mannerheim's Civil War role). Other statues, for examples, were erected in Mikkeli and Lahti.[60] On 5 December 2004, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finnish person of all time in the Suuret suomalaiset (Great Finns) contest.[8]

ملف:Mannerheim Memorial in Montreux dedication.jpg
Mannerheim Memorial in Montreux, Switzerland, next to بحيرة جنيف

From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or stamp series were issued in honour of Mannerheim; and in 1960 the United States honoured Mannerheim as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class domestic and international stamps (at the time four cents and eight cents respectively) as part of its Champions of Liberty series that included other notable figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Simon Bolivar.[61][62][63]

Mannerheim appears as a main character in Ilmari Turja's 1966 play and its the 1970 film adaptation fi (Päämaja), directed by Matti Kassila. In both the play and the film, Mannerheim was played by Joel Rinne.[64] Mannerheim was also played by Asko Sarkola in the 2001 television film Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940, directed by Veli-Matti Saikkonen.[65]

Mannerheim and Saint Petersburg commemorative coin


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الرتب العسكرية

الرتب

في الجيش الروسي

في الجيش الفنلندي

القائد الأعلى

  • 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the White Guard: from January to May 1918
  • 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces: from December 1918 to July 1919
  • 1931: Chairman of the Defence Council: from 1931 to 1939
  • 1939: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces [bis]: from 1939 to 1946

الأوسمة

Coat of Arms of Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
CGE Mannerheim coat of arms.svg
التفاصيل
ArmigerCarl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
Motto"Candida pro causa ense candido"[66]("With an honourable sword for an honourable cause")

In the course of his lifetime, Mannerheim received 82 military and civilian decorations.[67]

فنلندا

الإمبراطورية الروسية

السويد

غيرهم

الأعمال

انظر أيضاً

الهوامش

  1. ^ Riku Keski-Rauska (2005). Georg C. Ehrnrooth – Kekkosen kauden toisinajattelija (in الفنلندية). Helsinki: University of Helsinki.
  2. ^ C. G. E. Mannerheim at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  3. ^ أ ب Klinge, Matti. "Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951)". National Biography of Finland. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  4. ^ "MANNERHEIM - Civilian".
  5. ^ "MANNERHEIM - Civilian - Foreign Legion".
  6. ^ "Mannerheim - Defence Council".
  7. ^ Zeiler, Thomas W.; DuBois, Daniel M., eds. (2012). "Scandinavian Campaigns". A Companion to World War II. Wiley Blackwell Companions to World History. Vol. 11. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9681-9.
  8. ^ أ ب (in فنلندية) Suuret suomalaiset at YLE.fi
  9. ^ Pesonen, Mikko (13 March 2023). ""Adolf Ehrnrooth välitti Mannerheimin tahtoa haudan takaa" – Mannerheim on ainutlaatuinen kulttihahmo, jonka myyttiä lähipiiri rakensi määrätietoisesti". Yle (in الفنلندية). Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  10. ^ Edwards, Robert, ed. (2007). White Death: Russia's War with Finland 1939–1940. Phoenix. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7538-2247-0.
  11. ^ Warner, Oliver (1967) Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 154 ff.
  12. ^ أ ب Binder, David (16 October 1983). "Finland's Heritage on parade". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  13. ^ "Field Marshal Mannerheim, THE FATHER OF FINLAND". 15 November 1945. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  14. ^ "Finland Country Profile – Timeline". BBC News. 25 September 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  15. ^ Jokelin, Jantso (June 4, 2017). "Punikkisuvun lapsi puuskahtaa: Antakaa Marskille jo se suurmieselokuva". Aamulehti (in الفنلندية). Retrieved January 27, 2021.
  16. ^ St Petersburg court finds Finland guilty of 'genocide' during 1940s Leningrad siege[dead link]
  17. ^ Bidlack, Richard; Lomagin, Nikita (2012). The Leningrad Blockade, 1941–1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives. Translated by Schwartz, Marian. Yale University Press. pp. 1, 36. ISBN 9780300110296. JSTOR j.ctt5vm646. Next to the Holocaust, the Leningrad siege was the greatest act of genocide in Europe during the Second World War, as Germany, and to a lesser extent Finland, tried to bombard and starve Leningrad into submission. [...] The number of civilians who died from hunger, cold, and enemy bombardment within the blockaded territory or during and immediately following evacuation from it is reasonably estimated to be around 900,000.
  18. ^ Ganzenmüller 2005 page 334
  19. ^ Hund, Wulf Dietmar; Koller, Christian; Zimmermann, Moshe (2011). Racisms Made in Germany. Münster: LIT Verlag. p. 25. ISBN 978-3-643-90125-5.
  20. ^ Vihavainen, Timo; Schrey-Vasara, Gabriele (2011). "Opfer, Täter, Betrachter: Finnland und die Leningrader Blockade". Osteuropa. 61 (8/9): 48–63. JSTOR 44936431.
  21. ^ Siegl, Elfie (2011). "Die doppelte Tragödie: Anna Reid über die Leningrader Blockade". Osteuropa. 61 (8/9): 358–363. JSTOR 44936455.
  22. ^ Pajunen & Karjalainen 2019, pp. 9–11.
  23. ^ Westerlund 2019, pp. 202–203.
  24. ^ Chapman, Clare (15 October 2004). "Finnish Radio To Air Unique Hitler Recording"". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 June 2014.
  25. ^ "Secret Voice of Hitler". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2017-03-12.
  26. ^ HS: Muodikas Marski (in Finnish).
  27. ^ Trotter (2013), p. 24.
  28. ^ Screen (1970), pp. 43–49.
  29. ^ Clements (2009), pp. 80–81.
  30. ^ أ ب ت خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة dictator
  31. ^ أ ب "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
  32. ^ Caldwell, Christopher (11 August 2017). "Start to Finnish". Washington Examiner. Retrieved 4 February 2020. It was an 8,000-mile spying expedition. Russia was drawing up plans to invade China from the west—but failed to.
  33. ^ Clements (2009), pp. 100–103.
  34. ^ Tamm, Eric Enno (2010). The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 978-1-55365-269-4.
  35. ^ أ ب ت Trotter (2013), p. 29.
  36. ^ "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
  37. ^ أ ب "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
  38. ^ "Mannerheim tapasi Dalai-laman". Kaleva (in الفنلندية). Retrieved 2021-09-07.
  39. ^ Clements (2009), p. 155.
  40. ^ أ ب Putensen, Dörte (2017). "Der größte Finne aller Zeiten?". Damals (in الألمانية). No. 5. pp. 72–76.
  41. ^ Harald Haarmann (2016). Modern Finland. p. 122.
  42. ^ Screen (2000), p. 9.
  43. ^ Mannerheim (1953), p. 138.
  44. ^ Mannerheim ei ollut koko valkoisen Suomen sankari – Turun Sanomat (بالفنلندية)
  45. ^ أ ب Jägerskiöld (1986).
  46. ^ أ ب خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة Virkkunen
  47. ^ أ ب Turtola (1994).
  48. ^ Uusi Pikkujättiläinen (in الفنلندية). WSOY. 1986. p. 1022. ISBN 951-0-12416-8.
  49. ^ Mannerheim kuuli Hitlerin saapuvan syntymäpäiväjuhliin: – "Vad i helvete gör han här?" (in Finnish)
  50. ^ أ ب Uutuuskirja: Mannerheim innostui aluksi Hitleristä (in Finnish)
  51. ^ Jacobsson (1999).
  52. ^ Mannerheim (1953), p. 456.
  53. ^ Screen (2000), p. 245.
  54. ^ Screen (2000), pp. 252.
  55. ^ Jägerskiöld (1983).
  56. ^ "Historique". Centre hospitalier universitaire vaudois. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
  57. ^ Cunningham, Marjo (November 5, 2017). "Churchill kehui Mannerheimia: "Todellinen mies – vahva kuin kallionjärkäle"". Suomen Kuvalehti (in الفنلندية). Retrieved December 19, 2020.
  58. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة Museum
  59. ^ "Marskin Maja" lodge – Häme Lake Uplands – Visit Loppi
  60. ^ Matti Klinge, transl. Roderick Fletcher. "Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951) President of Finland, Marshal of Finland". Biografiakeskus. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
  61. ^ "MANNERHEIM – Special Topics – Stamps". www.mannerheim.fi.
  62. ^ "8-cent Mannerheim". 12 December 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  63. ^ "50th Anniversary USA Champions of Liberty Mahatma Gandhi Stamp". 9 March 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  64. ^ Päämaja – Finna.fi (in Finnish)
  65. ^ Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940 (TV Movie 2001) – IMDb
  66. ^ "Gustaf Mannerheim The Marshal of Finland". mannerheim-museo.fi. Archived from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 2 October 2017.
  67. ^ Mannerheim Internetprojekti, kunniamerkit valokuvineen (Finnish)
  68. ^ No. 77, Nousevan Auringon Ritarikunnan I luokka Paulovniakukkasin, Japani, mannerheim.fi.

المصادر

  • Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1953) The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim. London. OCLC 12424452
  • J. E. O. Screen (1993) Mannerheim: The Years of Preparation. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-900966-22-X
  • Petteri Koskikallio, Asko Lehmuskallio, and Harry Halén (1999) C. G. Mannerheim in Central Asia 1906-1908. Helsinki: National Board of Antiquities. ISBN 951-616-048-4
  • J. E. O. Screen (2000) Mannerheim: The Finnish Years. London: Hurst. ISBN 1-85065-573-1
  • Stig Jägerskiöld (1986) Mannerheim: Marshal of Finland. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1527-6
  • William R. Trotter (2000) A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-1940. ISBN 1-56512-249-6
ألقاب ملكية
سبقه
پر إڤند سڤن‌هوفود 		الوصي على عرش فنلندا تبعه
Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg
كرئيس الجمهورية
مناصب سياسية
سبقه
ريستو ريتي 		رئيس فنلندا تبعه
Juho Kusti Paasikivi
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