پارتراجا

(تم التحويل من Paratarajas)
Paratarajas

c.125 CE–c.300 CE[1]
Portrait of Paratarajas ruler Kozana circa 200-220 CE.jpg
Portrait of Paratarajas ruler Kozana circa 200-220 CE.[2]
كبـِّر
Core territory and possible maximum extent of Paradan,[3] and neighbouring polities in Southern Asia in the 2nd century CE.[4]
الحقبة التاريخيةالقدم المتأخر
• تأسست
c.125 CE
• انحلت
c.300 CE[1]
سبقها		 تلاها
المملكة الهندو-پارثية
Hind (Sasanian province)
Kushano-Sasanians
Today part ofپاكستان

The Pāratarājas (Brahmi: Gupta girnar paa.pngGupta girnar r.svgGupta ashoka t.svgGupta girnar raa.pngGupta ashoka j.svg Pāratarāja, Kharosthi: 𐨤𐨪𐨟𐨪𐨗 Pa-ra-ta-ra-ja, Parataraja, "Kings of Pārata") or Pāradarājas was a dynasty of Parthian kings in the territory of modern-day western Pakistan from circa 125 CE to circa 300 CE.[1] It appears to have been a tribal polity of Western Iranic heritage.[5]

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المصادر

The ancient history of Balochistan, western Pakistan, is scarcely documented.[6] The Paratarajas polity is known through coinage, which has been primarily found in and around Loralai.[1][أ]


العملات

The name "Parataraja" in the Brahmi script (Gupta girnar paa.pngGupta girnar r.svgGupta ashoka t.svgGupta girnar raa.pngGupta ashoka j.svg Pāratarāja) on a coin of Arjuna.[7]

E. J. Rapson first studied the coinage in 1905; it was subjected to a comprehensive evaluation by B. N. Mukherjee in 1972; these studies have been since superseded by analyses by Pankaj Tandon and Harry Falk.

Coinage was issued in five denominations: didrachms, drachms, hemidrachms, quarter drachms, and obols; all rulers did not issue every denomination. The first six rulers minted stable denominations in silver that were devalued and then replaced by billon than copper.[8] Tandon notes multiple similarities with Indo-Parthian coinage, especially in the metrological standards and shape, and the coinage of the Western Satraps, especially in materials.[9][ب]

The coins exhibit a bust on the obverse and a swastika—either right-facing or left-facing—on the reverse, circumscribed by a Prakrit legend in Brahmi script (usually silver coins) or Kharoshthi script (usually copper coins).[1] This legend carried the name of the issuer followed by patronymic, and identification as the "King of Paratas".[1] The die engraver often left the legend incomplete if he ran out of room, a quirk that is peculiar to the Paratarajas.

النقوش

Two contemporaneous inscriptions refer to the polity. The Paikuli inscription, which was erected by Narseh (293-302) after his victory over Bahram III, noted an anonymous "Pāradānshah" (King of Pardan) to have been among his many congratulators.[6]

Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht in Naqsh-i-Rustam, which is dated to 262, had "P'rtu"/"Pardan" as one of the many provinces of the Sasanian Empire:[11]

And I [Shapur I] possess the lands: Fars Persis, Pahlav [Parthia] ... and all of Abarshahr [all the upper (eastern, Parthian) provinces], Kerman, Sakastan, Turgistan, Makuran, Pardan Paradene, Hind [Sind] and Kushanshahr all the way to Pashkibur [Peshawar?] and to the borders of Kashgaria, Sogdia and Chach [Tashkent] and of that sea-coast Mazonshahr [Oman].[12]

The Tor Dherai inscribed potsherds mentioning the Parataraja Yolamira

In 1926 and 1927, Aurel Stein commanded an excavation at the ruins of a Buddhist site at Tor Dherai in Loralai and discovered potsherds carrying Prakrit inscriptions in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts.[13][ت] Sten Konow, publishing the report about three years later, failed to understand the Brahmi legends but interpreted the Kharosthi legend as:[13]

Of the Shahi Yola Mira, the master [owner[ث]] of the vihara, this water hall [is] the religious gift, in his own Yola-Mira-shahi-Vihara, to the order of the four quarters, in the acceptance of the Sarvastivadin teachers. And from this right donation may there be in future a share for [his] mother and father, in future a share for all beings and long life for the master of the law.[13]

Yola Mira, a king whose existence was unknown at the time of the excavation, has since been determined form coin finds to be the earliest Parataraja king.[14] The potsherds remain the only non-numismatic evidence for any of the Parataraja rulers.[8]

الأدب الكلاسيكي

No mention of the dynasty is found in extant literature; however, classical literature in Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit make mention of tribal polities named "Parētakēnoí" (Πᾰρητᾰκηνοί), "Pareitakai/Pareitacae" (Παρειτάκαις), "Parsidai" (Παρ?óδòν > Παρσιδὦν (?)), "Paraetaceni", "Paradene" (Παραδηνή) and "Parada". Tandon accepts Mukherjee's theory all of these names refer to the same entity, who gave rise to the dynasty; he cites Datayola's coin-inscriptions in support.

Around 440 BCE, Herodotus described of the Parētakēnoí as one of the Median tribes that were collectively ruled by Deiokes.[5] Arrian records Alexander the Great encountered the Pareitakai in Sogdian province; a siege was mounted but eventually their ruler offered submission and was rewarded with governorship of other provinces.[5][15] Contemporaneous historians Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Plutarch reiterate the account.[15] Isidore of Charax (fl. 0 C.E - ?)[ج] noted Paraitakene was the geographical area beyond Sakastene.[5] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) describes the territory of the Parsidai beyond the Ommanitic region on the coast of Balochistan.[5] The contemporaneous text Natural History by Pliny records the Paraetaceni to be between Aria and Parthia.[5] Ptolemy notes Paradene was a toponym for an interior region of Gedrosia.[5]

الجغرافيا

According to Classical literature, the Paratarajas was a migrant tribal polity that originated in the territory of modern-day north-western Iran or further east, and migrated over centuries to the eastern fringes of Parthian territory, where it may have reached its peak as an independent polity.[9][16] Neither the two inscriptions nor the coinage document the kingdom to any geographic precision.[17]

Most scholars have placed the polity in western Balochistan, west of Turan and east of Siestan, largely catering to individual biases.[18] Tandon challenged this "implicit consensus"; he hypothesized Shapur I's inscription listed regions in a geographical order from west to east, demarcating Pardan between the inexact provinces Makran and Hind.[18] Deriving support from the abundant finds of Parataraja coins and potsherds in Loralai, Tandon proposed the Paratarajas ruled the district and its surrounds, probably extending in the west to modern-day Quetta (or Kandahar) and in the north-east to modern-day Zhob.[19]

التأريخ

There exists no conclusive evidence to date the establishment of Paratarajas in Balochistan.[20] Tandon proposed an approximate date of 125 CE using circumstantial evidence:[21]

  • The regnal title Shahi found in the potsherds and some of the coinage of Yolamira was revived by Kanishka (c. 127–150).[21][22][23]
  • The first-recorded use of patronymic legends in the subcontinent outside of the Paratarajas is in the coins of Chastana (c. 78{subst:endash}}130), at Western Kshatrapa.
  • The obverse bust depicted on the coin of early Paratarajas is nearly identical to a rare copper coin type of Rudradaman (c. 130–150 CE; successor to Chastana).
  • Paleographic analyses of Brahmi legends place the coins in the second century.

The disintegration of Paratarajas can be predicted with more confidence.[24] Two overstrikes by Datayola— the last extant Parataraja ruler—on coins of the Kushano-Sasanian ruler Hormizd I provide a terminus post quem of c. 275 CE[24] Accepting this schema allots about 15 years per ruler, which fits with the norms for ancient dynasties; additionally, Koziya can be assigned to about c. 230, whose incorporation of a bust adorning a curved hem on the coin obverse can be correlated to the contemporaneous Kanishka II.[25]

التاريخ

الحكام

A rough lineage of Paratarajas rulers can be reconstructed from numismatic evidence as follows:

Ruler Coin Filiation Approx. dates[ح] Discussion
Yolamira[26]
Pāratarājas. Yolamira. Circa AD 125-150
 Son of Bagareva c. 125–150 CE
  • The name translates to "Warrior Mithra" in Bactrian.
  • Coinage was issued in all five denominations. Three distinct phases of minting—bearded bust (obv.) + right-facing swastika (rev.); clean-shaven bust + left-facing swastika; clean-shaven bust + right-facing swastika—have been observed. The didrachm was minted only in the second phase.
  • Coin legend in the Brahmi script:

Yolamirasa Bagareavaputrasa Pāratarājasa
Yolamirasa Bagarevaputrasa Pāratarājasa

"Of the king of the Paratas, Yolamira, son of Bagareva"
Bagamira[27] Eldest son of Yolamira c. 150 CE
  • The name translates to "Lord Mithra".
  • Only two drachms are known, both of which were struck on the die used by Yolamira in his third phase. The reverse features a right-facing swastika.
  • The coin legend—Bagamirasa Yolamiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script.
Arjuna[28]
Paratarajas_ruler_Arjuna_Circa_150-165_CE.
 Second son of Yolamira c. 150–160 CE
  • The name was probably adopted from the eponymous character in Mahabharata, a Hindu epic; Tandon hypothesizes that he might have been the son of an Indian wife.
  • In his first phase, Arjuna used Bagamira's die with a right-facing swastika on the reverse to issue drachms and hemidrachms. A new obverse die was then coupled with a left-facing swastika to mint the same denominations. In another (probably succeeding) phase, the same die was coupled with a right-facing swastika to mint drachms.
  • The coin legend—Arjunasa Yolamiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script.
Hvaramira[29]
Pāratarājas. Hvaramira. Circa AD 165-175
 a third son of Yolamira c. 160–175 CE
  • The name translates to "Glorious Mithra"; hvara > khwarrah.
  • In his first phase, Hvaramira used Arjuna's die from the last phase with a right-facing swastika on the reverse to mint drachms. Then, a new die was used with a right-facing swastika to mint drachms and didrachms. Finally, this die was coupled with a left-facing swastika to mint drachms.
  • The coin legend—Hvaramirasa Yolamiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script; some coins use a variant spelling of Yodamiraputrasa.
Mirahvara[30]
Pāratarājas. Mirahvara. Circa AD 175-185
 son of Hvaramira c. 175–185 CE
  • The name translates to "Glorious Mithra".
  • In his first phase, Mirahvara used Hvaramira's die from the last phase to mint drachms; Arjuna's hemidrachm die from the second phase to mint quarter drachms; and Yolamira's die from the third phase to mint hemidrachms. All had a right-facing Swastika on the reverse. In the next phase, Hvaramira's dies from the second and third phases were coupled with a left-facing swastika to respectively mint didrachms and drachms. In the third phase, a new die and Yolamira's die from the third phase were coupled with a right-facing swastika to respectively mint drachms and hemidrachms.
  • The coin legend—Mirahvarasa Hvaramiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script.
Miratakhma[31]
Parata Rajas. Miratakhma
 another son of Hvaramira c. 185–200 CE
  • The name translates to "Heroic Mithra."
  • Drachm and hemidrachm issues have been found: Tandon suspects didrachms were likely, given the abundance of his coins. Phases are not very coherent. Used Mirahvara's die from the third phase and a new die to mint drachms; both right-facing and left-facing Swastika is found on the reverse. The hemidrachm used Arjuna's die from the second phase with a right-facing swastika.
  • The coin legend—Mirahvarasa Hvaramiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script. Is the only king to feature a Sanskrit legend—Miratakhmasya Hvaramiraputrasya Pāratarāja(sya)—on some drachms.
Kozana[32]
Pāratarājas Kozana Circa 200-220 CE
 son of Bagavharna (and perhaps grandson of Bagamira?) c. 200–220 CE
  • The meaning of the name cannot be conclusively deciphered; Harry Falk speculates a connection with the homonymous founder of the Kushana empire.
  • Kozana was the first Pāratarāja king to issue coins with the legends in Kharoshthi, which upcoming rulers adopted. Significant devaluation is observed for the first time.
  • All mints used Miratakhma's dies. In the first phase, minted hemidrachms (and prob. drachms) with Brahmi legends. In the second phase, drachms were minted with Kharoshthi legend. In the third phase, minted drachms, didrachms, and hemidrachms on a reduced weight base. All coinage had a right-facing Swastika on the reverse.
  • The Brahmi legend ran, Kozanasa putra Pāratarāja. The Kharoshthi legend ran, Kozanasa Bagavharnaputrasa Pāratarājasa.
Bhimarjuna[33]
Coin of Parataraja Bhimarjuna.jpg
son of Yolatakhma (and perhaps grandson of Arjuna?) c. 220–235 CE
  • Apart from Arjuna, the only King to adopt an Indian name formed out of a portmanteau of two characters in Mahabharata, a Hindu epic.
  • Last King to issue silver mints; only drachms have been found. Used a new die—that did not match with any previous ruler's but was stylistically similar to Kozana's (i.e. Miratakhma's)—with a right-facing Swastika on the reverse. There is a drastic devaluation from silver to billon to copper.
  • The coin legend—Bhimarjunasa Yolatakhmaputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Kharoshthi script.
Koziya[34]
Pāratarājas. Koziya. Circa AD 230-270
 son of Kozana c. 235–265 CE
Koziya standing
  • The meaning of the name remains unknown.
  • Most abundant and complex coinage among all Paratarajas with several innovations—from inscribing names of Kings on the obverse to replacing the bust image with that of a turbanned standing King with a specter—which would become the mainstay of upcoming rulers.
  • The coin legend—Koziyasa Kozanaputra Pāratarāja—runs in the Kharoshthi script.
Datarvharna[35]
Pāratarājas. Datarvharna. Circa AD 270-280
 son of a Datayola (and perhaps grandson of Bhimarjuna?) c. 265–280 CE
  • The meaning of the name cannot be conclusively deciphered; Harry Falk translates to "Glory of the Creator".
  • Only a few didrachms have been found, in what Tandon suspects as an indicator of a short regime and extreme inflation reducing the need for lower denomination coins. Used dies stylistically similar to Koziya's with a right-facing Swastika on the reverse.
  • The coin legend—Datarvharnasa Datayolaputrasa Pāratarāja—runs in the Kharoshthi script. The nominative Datarvharna is inscribed on the obverse.
Datayola[36] son of Datarvharna c. 280–300 CE
  • The meaning of the name cannot be conclusively deciphered; Harry Falk translates to "Fighter for the Law."
  • Coins are cruder, and large denomination tetradrachms were introduced for the first time, pointing to a weak economy and inflation. Datayola used dies stylistically similar to Datarvharna's (or rather, Koziya's) with both right-facing and left-facing Swastika on the reverse.
  • A couple of overstrikes on coins of the Kushano-Sasanian ruler Hormizd I (ruled c. 275 to 300) have been observed, providing a terminus post quem of circa 275, and challenging Shapur I's inscription, in which Shapur claims to be ruling Paradan as of 262 CE.
  • The coin legend—Datayolasa Datarvharnaputrasa Pāratarāja—runs in the Kharoshthi script; some issues make pioneering use of Pāradarāja in place of Pāratarāja, suggesting the identity of the two names Pārata and Pārada. The nominative Datayola is inscribed on the obverse.


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استعراض

The frequent referencing of Mithra, a Zoroastrian deity, in the names of the rulers lends credence to the origins of the Paratarajas lying in the Far West.[9] The Paratarajas were probably Zoroastrian by faith but they likely patronized Buddhism as well.[37] Tandon said the Paratarajas may have been Parthian vassals who declared independence, leveraging the weakening of imperial authority and a burgeoning trade with the Roman Empire.[16]

The only significant information about their rule is that they flourished as an intermediary state between three major powers—the Kushanas to the north, the Western Satraps to the east, and the Sassanids to the west—for about two centuries.[38]

Their fall can be correlated to the well-corroborated decline in Indo-Roman trade volume beginning in the mid-3rd century and then, Shapur II's devastating Eastern Campaign. Tandon rejects the idea were conquered by the Sasanians as early as 262—as attested in Shapur I's inscription—because Parata coins continued to be abundant without exhibiting any abrupt Sassanian influence as in the case of Bactria, and because the region was not claimed as a Sassanian territory in future inscriptions like Kartir's, at Naqsh-e Rajab.[37][خ]

الإرث

Coins carrying an inscription of "śrī rājño sāhi vijayapotasya" ("Of the noble Lord, King Vijayapota") on the reverse have been found around Loralai; based on the presence of a crescent at the brow of the obverse bust, a terminus post quem of c. 400 corresponding to Sassanian shahanshah Yazdegerd I can be assigned.[39] Despite a marked contrast in the legend and the long gap from Datayola, the common use of the swastika as the central motif on the reverse and a similarity in metrological standards led Tandon to hypothesize Vijayapotasya might have been either a Parataraja or a ruler from a successor dynasty that exercised nominal independence despite the strong presence of Sassanians in the region.[40]

ملاحظات

  1. ^ Finds have been also reported from Zhob, Quetta, Chaman, and Kandahar.
  2. ^ Tandon rejects Sassanian influence on the coins.[10] This is rejected by Nikolaus Schindel.
  3. ^ The finds are presently in the Central Antiquities Collection, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.
  4. ^ Consult خطأ: الوظيفة "harvard_core" غير موجودة. on why this is a better choice.
  5. ^ We get this information from Stathmoi Parthikoi, which is believed to have been excerpted from a now-lost exhaustive account of Parthian Empire. This account, in turn was likely dependent on an older survey dating back to the times of Mithridates II.
  6. ^ The individual dates are rough estimates based on approximate general dates about the dynasty and reconstructions of the lineage, and Tandon gives two possible starting points, in 125 CE and 150 CE.
  7. ^ Tandon leaves open the possibility the Paratas might had been nominative vassals.

المراجع

  1. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Tandon 2021, p. 1.
  2. ^ CNG Coins
  3. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 30-31, 46.
  4. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 21, 145. ISBN 0226742210.
  5. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ Tandon 2006.
  6. ^ أ ب Tandon 2012, p. 27.
  7. ^ TANDON, PANKAJ (2009). "Further Light on the Pāratarājas: an Absolute Chronology of the Brāhmī and Kharoṣṭhī Series". The Numismatic Chronicle. 169: 137–171. ISSN 0078-2696.
  8. ^ أ ب Tandon 2021, p. 2.
  9. ^ أ ب ت Tandon 2012, p. 36.
  10. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 37.
  11. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 28.
  12. ^ Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (262 CE), translation by Josef Wiesehöfer (1996). The complete paragraph says:
    And I [Shapur I]] possess the lands: Fars [Persis], Pahlav [Parthia], Huzestan [Khuzistan], Meshan [Maishan, Mesene], Asorestan [Mesopotamia], Nod-Ardakhshiragan [Adiabene], Arbayestan [Arabia], Adurbadagan [Atropatene], Armen [Armenia], Virozan [Iberia], Segan [Machelonia], Arran [Albania], Balasagan up to the Caucasus and to the ‘gate of the Alans’ and all of Padishkhvar[gar] [the entire Elburz chain = Tabaristan and Gelan (?)], Mad [Media], Gurgan [Hyrcania], Marv [Margiana], Harey [Aria], and all of Abarshahr [all the upper (= eastern, Parthian) provinces], Kerman [Kirman], Sakastan, Turgistan, Makuran, Pardan [Paradene], Hind [Sind] and Kushanshahr all the way to Pashkibur [Peshawar?] and to the borders of Kashgaria, Sogdia and Chach [Tashkent] and of that sea-coast Mazonshahr [Oman].
    in Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 BC to 650 AD. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 184. ISBN 978-1860646751.
  13. ^ أ ب ت Tandon 2012, p. 31.
  14. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 31-32.
  15. ^ أ ب Chaumont, Marie Louise. "CHORIENES". Encyclopedia Iranica.
  16. ^ أ ب Tandon 2012, p. 37-38.
  17. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 26.
  18. ^ أ ب Tandon 2012, p. 29-30.
  19. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 30-31.
  20. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 34.
  21. ^ أ ب Tandon 2012, p. 34-35.
  22. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 1-2.
  23. ^ Tandon 2020, p. 3.
  24. ^ أ ب Tandon 2012, p. 35.
  25. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 35-36.
  26. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 2-3.
  27. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 3.
  28. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 4-5.
  29. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 5.
  30. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 6-7.
  31. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 7-8.
  32. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 8-9.
  33. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 9-10.
  34. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 10-12.
  35. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 12-13.
  36. ^ Tandon 2021, p. 13-14.
  37. ^ أ ب Tandon 2012, p. 38-40.
  38. ^ Tandon 2012, p. 45.
  39. ^ Tandon 2020, p. 5-6.
  40. ^ Tandon 2020, p. 6-7.

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