عهد أشولي

العهد الأشولي Acheulean ويقع تاريخه حول 000ر75 ق.م ولقد تخلفت عنه آثار كثيرة في أوربا وجرينلند والولايات المتحدة والمكسيك وأفريقيا والشرق الأدنى والهند والصين ؛ وهذه المرحلة لم تُصلح من المدية الحجرية إصلاحاً يجعلها أكثر تناسقاً وأحَدَّ طرفا فحسب ، بل أنتجت إلى جانب ذلك أنواعاً كثيرة من الآلات الخاصة كالمطارق والسندانات والكاشطات والصفائح ورءوس السهام وسنان الرماح والمدى ، وفي هذه المرحلة تستطيع أن ترى صورة تدل على مرحلة نشيطة للصناعة البشرية.

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تحديد عمر الأشولي

An Acheulean handaxe from Zamora

الأدوات الحجرية الأشولية

Acheulean hand-axes from كنت. The types shown are (clockwise from top) cordate, ficron and ovate.

المراحل

In the four divisions of prehistoric stone-working,^[1] Acheulean artefacts are classified as Mode 2, meaning they are more advanced than the (usually earlier) Mode 1 tools of the Clactonian or Oldowan/Abbevillian industries but lacking the sophistication of the (usually later) Mode 3 Middle Palaeolithic technology, كان مثال عليها الصناعة الموسترية.

An Acheulean hand-axe found at أمو كبيش في إثيوپيا.

A large and carefully crafted handaxe such as this may have served a social as well as functional purpose

انظر أيضاً

المصادر

Pappu, Raghunath (2001). Acheulean Culture in Peninsular India: An Ecological Perspective. New Delhi: D K Printworld. ISBN 81-246-0168-2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help)
Adkins, L (1998). The Handbook of British Archaeology. London: Constable. ISBN 0-09-478330-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Butler, C (2005). Prehistoric Flintwork. Tempus, Stroud. ISBN 0-7524-3340-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help)
Darvill, T (ed.) (2003). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280005-1. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help)
Milliken, S (2001). A Very Remote Period Indeed. Papers on the Palaeolithic presented to Derek Roe. Oxford: Oxbow. ISBN 1-84217-056-2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Renfrew, C (1991). Archaeology, Theories Methods and Practice. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27605-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Scarre, C (ed.) (2005). The Human Past. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28531-4. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help)
Wood, B (2005). Human Evolution A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280360-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help)

^ Bar-Yosef, O and Belfer-Cohen, A, 2001, From Africa to Eurasia — Early Dispersals, Quaternary International 75, 19–28, Abstract
^ Scarre, C, 2005, p110
^ Clark, JD, Variability in primary and secondary technologies of the Later Acheulian in Africa in Milliken, S and Cook, J (eds), 2001
^ Roche H and Kibunjia, M, 1994, Les sites archaéologiques plio-pléistocènes de la formation de Nachukui, West Turkana, Kenya: bilan synthétique 1997–2001, Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris 318 (Série II), 1145–51, qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Roche H et al., 2002, Les sites archaéologiques pio-pléistocènes de la formation de Nachukui, Ouest-Turkana, Kenya: bilan synthétique 1997–2001, Comptes Rendus Palevol 2, 663–673, qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Wood, B, 2005, p87.
^ Ashton, N, McNabb, J, Irving, B, Lewis, S and Parfitt, S Contemporaneity of Clactonian and Acheulian flint industries at Barnham, Suffolk Antiquity 68, 260, p585–589 Abstract
^ Clark, JD et al., 1966, Precision and definition in African archaeology, South African Archaeological Bulletin XXI (83), 114–21 qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Barton, RNE, Stone Age Britain English Heritage/BT Batsford:London 1997 qtd in Butler, 2005. See also Wymer, JJ, The Lower Palaeolithic Occupation of Britain, Wessex Archaeology and English Heritage, 1999.
^ Ashton, NM, McNabb, J, and Parfitt, S, Choppers and the Clactonian, a reinvestigation, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, pp21–28, qtd in Butler, 2005
^ Wymer, JJ, 1968, Lower Palaeolithic Archaeology in Britain: as represented by the Thames Valley, qtd in Adkins, L and R, 1998
^ Collins, D, 1978, Early Man in West Middlesex, qtd in Adkins, L and R, 1998
^ Paddayya, K, Jhaldiyal, R and Petraglia, MD, Excavation of an Acheulian workshop at Isampur, Karnataka (India) Antiquity 74, 286, pp 751–752 Abstract
^ Gamble, C and Steele, J, 1999, Hominid ranging patterns and dietary strategies in Ullrich, H (ed.), Hominid evolution: lifestyles and survival strategies, pp 396–409, Gelsenkirchen: Edition Archaea.
^ Unattributed citation in Renfrew and Bahn, 1991, p277
^ O'Brien, E, 1981, The projectile capabilities of an Acheulian handaxe from Olorgesailie, Current Anthropology 22: 76–9. See also Calvin, W, 1993, The unitary hypothesis: a common neural circuitry for novel manipulations, language, plan-ahead and throwing, in K.R. Gibson & T. Ingold (ed.), Tools, language and cognition in human evolution: 230–50. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Gamble, C, 1997, Handaxes and palaeolithic individuals, in N. Ashton, F. Healey & P.Pettitt (ed.), Stone Age archaeology: 105–9. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Monograph 102.
^ White, MJ, 1998, On the significance of Acheulian biface variability in southern Britain, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 64: 15–44.
^ Kohn, M and Mithen, S, 1999, Handaxes: products of sexual selection?, Antiquity 73, 518–26 Abstract
^ Todd, L, Glantz, M and Kappelman, J, Chilga Kernet: an Acheulean landscape on Ethiopia's western plateau Antiquity 76, 293 pp 611–612 Abstract
^ Hyeong Woo Lee, The Palaeolithic industries of Korea: chronology and related new findspots in Milliken, S and Cook, J (eds), 2001
^ Gamble, C and Marshall, G, The shape of handaxes, the structure of the Acheulian world, in Milliken, S and Cook, J (eds), 2001
^ Clarke, JD et al., 2003, Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioural contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia, Nature 423, 747–52, Abstract
^ Isaac, GL, 1976, Stages of cultural elaboration in the Pleistocene: possible archaeological indicators of the development of language capabilities, in Origins and Evolution of Languages and Speech (SR Harbard et al. eds.), 276–88, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280, qtd in Renfrew and Bahn, 1991
^ Wynne, T, 1995, Handaxe enigmas, World Archaeology 27, 10–24, qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Dibble, HL, 1989, The implications of stone tool types for the presenceof language during the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic, in The Human Revolution (P Mellars and C Stringer eds) Edinburgh University Press, qtd in Renfrew and Bahn, 1991.
^ Goren-Inbar, N and Peltz, S, 1995, Additional remarks on the Berekhat Ram figure, Rock Art Research 12, 131–132, qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Mania, D and Mania, U, 1988, Deliberate engravings on bone artefacts of Homo Erectus, Rock Art Research 5, 919–7, qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Tryon, CA and McBrearty, S, 2002, Tephrostatigraphy and the Acheulean to Middle Stone Age transition in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya, Journal of Human Evolution 42, 211–35, qtd in Scarre, 2005 Abstract
^ Cruz-Uribe, K et al, 2003, Excavation of buried late Acheulean (mid-Quaternary) land surfaces at Duinefontein 2, West Cape Province, South Africa, Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 559–75, qtd in Scarre, 2005
^ Scarre, 2005, chapter 3 , p118 "However, objects whose artistic meaning is unequivocal become commonplace only after 50,000 years ago, when they are associated with the origins and spread of fully modern humans from Africa.
^ ...the most conservative conclusion today is that Acheulean people and their contemporaries definitely hunted big animals, though their success rate is not clear ibid, p 120.
^ De Lumley, 1975, Cultural evolution in France in its palaeoecological setting during the middle Pleistocene, in After the Australopithecines, Butzer, KW and Issac, G Ll. (eds) 745–808. The Hague:Mouton, qtd in Scarre, 2005

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وصلات خارجية

المصادر

ديورانت, ول; ديورانت, أرييل. قصة الحضارة. ترجمة بقيادة زكي نجيب محمود.