عصر الاستكشاف

لمعلومات عن the games، انظر Glenn Drover's Empires: The Age of Discovery وEverQuest II: Age of Discovery.

The Map of Juan de la Cosa of 1500, the earliest undisputed representation of the Americas.
Naval Museum of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.

The Cantino planisphere of 1502, the earliest surviving chart showing the explorations of Columbus to Central America, Corte-Real to Newfoundland, Gama to India and Cabral to Brazil. The Tordesillas line is depicted at left.
Biblioteca Estense, Modena, Italy.

عصر الاستكشاف هو الفترة من أوائل القرن الخامس عشر والمستمرة حتى أوائل القرن السابع عشر، قامت السفن الأوروبية خلالها بالسفر حول العالم للبحث عن طرق تجارية جديدة وعن شركاء تجارة جدد لتغذية الرأسمالية السريعة النمو في أوروبا. وأثناء بحثهم عثروا صدفة على أراضٍ كانت مجهولة بالنسبة إليهم. من أشهر المستكشفين في ذلك الوقت: كرستوفر كولومبوس، ڤاسكو دا گاما، وفرديناند ماجلان.

شكل التقدم التقني والفكري في عصر النهضة البذرة التي بدأت عصر الاستكشاف. وقد شمل هذا التقدم علوما مختلفة كعلم الخرائط والملاحة والتطورات في بناء السفن والتي كان أهمها اختراع السفن الكبيرة والتي جمعت التصميم العربي والأوروبي للسفن مما جعل الإبحار خارج البحر المتوسط آمنا. يضاف إلى ذلك رغبة العديد في أوروبا لإيجاد طريق بديل للذهاب إلى آسيا عن طريق الغرب.

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 عرض عام

Map with the main travels of the Age of Discovery. See details in expandable table:

 التكنولوجيا: تصميم السفن والبوصلة

A Caravel with two lateen sail rigs and a headsail. Caravels were invented by Portuguese, they had more manoeuvrability and were essential to the Age of Discovery.

Technological advancements that were important to the Age of Exploration were the adoption of the magnetic compass and advances in ship design.

 الجغرافيا والخرائط

Pintle-and-gudgeon stern-post rudder of the Hanseatic league flagship Adler von Lübeck (1567–1581).

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a document dating from 40–60 AD, describes a newly discovered route through the Red Sea to India, with descriptions of the markets in towns around Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, including along the eastern coast of Africa, which states "for beyond these places the unexplored ocean curves around toward the west, and running along by the regions to the south of Aethiopia and Libya and Africa, it mingles with the western sea (possible reference to the Atlantic Ocean)". European medieval knowledge about Asia beyond the reach of the Byzantine Empire was sourced in partial reports, often obscured by legends, dating back from the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great and his successors.

Another source was the Radhanite Jewish trade networks of merchants established as go-betweens between Europe and the Muslim world during the time of the Crusader states.

Ptolemy's world map (2nd century) in a 15th-century reconstruction by Nicolaus Germanus.

In 1154, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi created a description of the world and a world map, the Tabula Rogeriana, at the court of King Roger II of Sicily, but still Africa was only partially known to either Christians, Genoese and Venetians, or the Arab seamen, and its southern extent unknown. There were reports of great African Sahara, but the factual knowledge was limited for the Europeans to the Mediterranean coasts and little else since the Arab blockade of North Africa precluded exploration inland. Knowledge about the Atlantic African coast was fragmented and derived mainly from old Greek and Roman maps based on Carthaginian knowledge, including the time of Roman exploration of Mauritania. The Red Sea was barely known and only trade links with the Maritime republics, the Republic of Venice especially, fostered collection of accurate maritime knowledge.

 السفر في القرون الوسطى (1241–1438)

The Silk Road and spice trade routes later blocked by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 spurring exploration to find alternative sea routes

Marco Polo travels (1271–1295)

 البعثات الصينية (1405–1433)

للمزيد من المعلومات: Ming treasure voyages and الاستكشاف الصيني

"Mao Kun map", believed to be based on Zheng He's travels, showing sailing directions between ports of SE Asia and as far as Malindi, in Wu Bei Zhi (1628)

 المحيط الأطلسي (1419–1507)

انظر أيضاً: Maritime history of Europe § The European Age of Discovery (1400–1600), and Portuguese discoveries

Genoese (red) and Venetian (green) maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean and Black Sea

 الاستكشاف حسب البلد

سانتا مارية

مهد لعصر الاستكشاف سلسلة من الحملات الأوروبية التي تعدت أراضي أوراسيا عن طريق البر في أواخر العصور الوسطى. فبينما شكل المغول خطرا يهدد أوروبا بالنهب والدمار، فقد أدت هذه الظروف إلى توحد أغلب آسيا وأوروبا في إنشاء طرق تجارية وخطوط تواصل امتدت من الشرق الأوسط وحتى الصين. وقد استغل بعض الأوروبين الفرصة للسفر والاستكشاف شرقا، وكان غالبيتهم العظمى من الإيطاليين نظرا لكونهم طرق التجارة بين أوروبا والشرق الأوسط خاضعة تحت سيطرة التجارة من المدن الإيطالية. وقد كان قرب هؤلاء من ما يعرف اليوم ببلاد الشام الدور الكبير في خلق الفضول والاهتمام التجاري لما يكمن خلف هذه الحدود. وكذلك، فقد أطلق البابا حملات لأهداف دينية.

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 نهاية عصر الاستكشاف

يقال بأن عصر الاستكشاف انتهى في بداية القرن السابع عشر، في الوقت الذي كان باستطاع السفن الأوروبية أن تبحر لأي مكان في الكوكب. ولكن الاستكشاف لم ينتهِ، فلم يتم اكتشاف المحيط المتجمد الشمالي والجنوبي إلا فالقرن التاسع عشر.

 الوقع العالمي

المقالة الرئيسية: Columbian Exchange, تاريخ الاستعمار, and العولمة

New World crops. Clockwise from top left: 1. Corn (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (genus Vanilla, esp. Vanilla planifolia) 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)

Jesuit scholars collaborated extensively with Chinese astronomers, introducing Copernican principles. Top: Matteo Ricci, Adam Schaal and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–1688); Bottom: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), Colao or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu

 الوقع الاقتصادي على أوروپا

المقالة الرئيسية: Commercial Revolution, Renaissance, Renaissance in the Low Countries, and Great Divergence

World map from Johannes Kepler's Rudolphine Tables (1627), incorporating many of the new discoveries.

Delftware depicting Chinese scenes, 18th century. Ernest Cognacq Museum

Jan Davidsz. de Heem, detail of silverware from "A Richly Laid Table with Parrots", c. 1650

 انظر أيضاً

• عصر الشراع
• Atlantic slave trade
• Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
• Chinese maritime exploration
• Chronology of European exploration of Asia
• Columbian Exchange
• Exploration
• European exploration of Australia
• History of navigation
• L'Anse aux Meadows
• List of explorations
• Major explorations after the Age of Discovery
• Maritime history
• Portuguese inventions
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
• Scramble for Africa
• Timeline of European exploration
• Winds in the Age of Sail

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 المراجع

 ببليوگرافيا

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• "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem". www.scitizen.com. August 2007. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
• "The Cabot Dilemma: John Cabot's 1497 Voyage & the Limits of Historiography" ((on subscription)). Derek Croxton, University of Virginia. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
• "The European Voyages of Exploration". The Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary. Archived from the original on 22 July 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• "The Lost Fort of Columbus". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• "The Perfilyevs family" (in الروسية). VSP.ru. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 19 June 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa". Researchnews, The Ohio State University. May 24, 2006. Archived from the original on December 8, 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• "Willem Barentsz and the Northeast passage". University Library of Tromsø – The Northern Lights Route. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
• Harwood, Jeremy (2006). To the Ends of the Earth: 100 Maps that Changed the World. F+W Publications Inc.

 للاستزادة

• Brook, Timothy (2007). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World (reissue ed.). Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-444-5.
• Cipolla, Carlo (1970). European Culture and Overseas Expansion. Pelican, London.
• DeVoto, Bernard (1998) [1952]. The Course of Empire. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-395-92498-3. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
• Hall, Robert L. (1991). Savoring Africa in the New World People Started Coming In Contact With Each Other While Trading They Got Many New Ideas From Other People And Countries.. In Seeds of Change: Five Hundred Years Since Columbus. Vol. 93. Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, eds. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 248–250. ISBN 978-1-56098-036-0. JSTOR 27568307. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
• Love, Ronald S. (2006). Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32043-9. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
• Rice, Eugene, F., Jr (1994) [1970]. The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460–1559. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-96304-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Wright, John K. (March 1947). "Terrae Incognitae: The Place of the Imagination in Geography". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 37 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1080/00045604709351940.

 وصلات خارجية

• The Fortnightly Review.uk: "The Faustian Impulse and European Exploration"
• Zinn Education Project.org: "Discover Columbus: Re-reading the Past" – Rethinking Schools 6-page lesson plan for high school students.